The Near and Middle East (1828–1971 CE)

Empires in Decline, Nations in Transition, and Oil in Ascendancy

Geography & Environmental Context

The Near and Middle East includes three fixed subregions:

• The Near East — Israel, Egypt, Sudan, western Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Jordan, southwestern Turkey, and southwestern Cyprus.

• The Middle East — Iraq, Iran, Syria, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Qatar, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, eastern Jordan, eastern Saudi Arabia, and northern Oman.

• Southeast Arabia — southern Oman, eastern Yemen, and the island of Socotra.

This vast region links the Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Caspian Basin, bridging Africa, Europe, and Asia. It is dominated by deserts and highlands, punctuated by fertile river valleys (the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates) and strategic straits — the Suez Canal, the Bab el-Mandeb, and the Strait of Hormuz — that define global trade and geopolitics.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

Aridity remained the defining condition. The 19th century brought episodes of famine and epidemic following droughts in Egypt, Iran, and the Arabian Peninsula. Irrigation schemes and canal building, such as the Suez Canal (opened 1869) and the Assiut Barrage (1902), transformed riverine agriculture. Petroleum exploration and urban expansion in the 20th century accelerated desertification and water demand. Monsoon moisture sustained oases in Oman and Yemen, while seasonal Nile floods continued until the Aswan High Dam (1960–70) reshaped the river’s ecology.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Agrarian bases persisted in the Nile Valley, the Fertile Crescent, and the Iranian Plateau, producing wheat, cotton, dates, and fruits.

• Nomadic and pastoral tribes in Arabia, the Levant, and Sudan maintained camel and sheep herding, adapting to modern markets.

• Urbanization surged in Cairo, Istanbul, Tehran, Baghdad, Beirut, and Jeddah, intensified by European trade and oil wealth.

• Port cities—Aden, Basra, Kuwait City, Manama, and Doha—grew into nodes of global commerce.

Technology & Material Culture

European imperial penetration introduced telegraphs, railways (notably the Hejaz Railway, 1908), and modern weaponry. In the 20th century, oil extraction and refining brought pipelines, tankers, and industrial zones. Traditional crafts—carpets, calligraphy, metalwork, and ceramics—remained vital symbols of identity. Concrete architecture and Western education transformed cities, while mosques and bazaars continued as cultural anchors.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Trade routes: The Suez Canal reoriented world shipping; the Persian Gulf became an oil artery.

• Pilgrimage: The Hajj connected Muslims globally through Mecca and Medina.

• Migration: Rural–urban drift filled cities; labor migration later linked Yemenis, Egyptians, and Iranians to Gulf oil fields.

• Military corridors: The Near and Middle East served as theaters of imperial rivalries—British in the Gulf and Egypt, Russians in the Caucasus, Ottomans across Anatolia and Arabia.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Religion and reform: Islamic modernists such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh sought synthesis of faith and reason; Christian minorities in Lebanon and Armenia fostered education and journalism.

• Literature and art: The Nahda (Arab Renaissance) revived Arabic prose and poetry; Persian and Turkish writers blended realism with nationalism.

• Architecture: Cairo’s modern boulevards, Tehran’s avenues, and oil-era Gulf skylines redefined urban form while domed mosques and minarets remained emblems of continuity.

• Music and media: Radio and cinema from Cairo, Tehran, and Istanbul spread popular culture across linguistic and sectarian boundaries.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Desert agriculture expanded through artesian wells and canals; the introduction of cash crops like cotton in Egypt and tobacco in Iran restructured rural economies. Oases sustained date-palm and grain cultivation, while pastoralists adjusted routes to motor transport and border restrictions. In coastal cities, desalination and modern infrastructure emerged to offset water scarcity.

Political & Military Shocks

• Imperial decline and reform:

  • The Ottoman Empire weakened, culminating in its dissolution after World War I.

  • Egypt’s Muhammad Ali dynasty modernized administration and industry but fell under British occupation (1882).

  • Iran’s Qajar dynasty faced constitutional revolution (1905–11) and later Pahlavi modernization (from 1925).

• World Wars and mandates: British and French mandates carved up former Ottoman territories; Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Transjordan, and Palestine emerged under European oversight.

• Nationalism and revolution:

  • Turkey’s Republic (1923) under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk secularized and industrialized Anatolia.

  • Arab nationalism surged—Nasser’s Egypt championed anti-imperial unity.

  • Iran underwent the 1951 oil nationalization crisis and the White Revolution (1963).

  • The Zionist movement culminated in the creation of Israel (1948) and successive Arab–Israeli wars (1948, 1956, 1967).

• Oil and Cold War: The discovery of major oil fields (Iran 1908; Iraq 1927; Saudi Arabia 1938; Kuwait 1938) made the region central to global power politics. U.S. and Soviet rivalry deepened through alliances and arms races.

Transition

Between 1828 and 1971, the Near and Middle East transformed from imperial provinces and desert sultanates into a mosaic of nation-states, revolutionary republics, and monarchies bound by oil and ideology. The collapse of Ottoman and colonial empires unleashed nationalist movements, while petroleum wealth and Cold War geopolitics redefined economies and alliances. In the deserts of Arabia and the deltas of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates, modernization coexisted with faith, and cities like Cairo, Tehran, and Riyadh became centers of a region poised between deep tradition and global transformation

The Near East, 1960 to 1971 CE: Turbulent Politics and Regional Conflict

Sudan: Political Instability and Military Rule

Between 1960 and 1971, Sudan experiences significant political turmoil and internal unrest. General Ibrahim Abboud, who seized power in a military coup in 1958, fails to fulfill promises of returning Sudan to civilian governance. Discontent culminates in widespread riots and strikes in October 1964, leading to Abboud's resignation and the establishment of a transitional civilian administration.

Parliamentary elections in April 1965 result in a coalition government of the Umma Party and the National Unionist Party (NUP) under Prime Minister Muhammad Ahmad Mahjoub. However, political instability persists from 1966 to 1969 due to factional disputes, economic stagnation, and ethnic tensions, particularly in southern Sudan, which had sparked the First Sudanese Civil War (1955–1972).

In May 1969, Colonel Jaafar Nimeiry leads a second military coup, abolishing parliament and outlawing political parties. The early Nimeiry era sees ideological struggles between Marxist and non-Marxist factions, resulting in a brief communist-led coup in July 1971. Anti-communist military factions quickly restore Nimeiry's rule, reinforcing authoritarian governance in Sudan.

The Arab-Israeli Conflict: The Six-Day War and War of Attrition

Regional tensions peak during the Six-Day War of June 1967, as Israel decisively defeats Arab forces, occupying significant territories including the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula, and Golan Heights. The war dramatically reshapes regional geopolitics and inflames Arab nationalism.

Following the Six-Day War, the War of Attrition (1967–1970) emerges, marked by ongoing clashes between Egypt and Israel along the Suez Canal. This protracted conflict underscores the Cold War dynamics as the Soviet Union heavily supports Egypt, while the United States backs Israel, deepening geopolitical divisions.

Black September and Jordan's Crisis

In Jordan, tensions between the government and Palestinian guerrilla organizations reach a critical point in September 1970, resulting in Black September. Jordanian forces clash violently with Palestinian militants, driving them from the country and significantly affecting regional Palestinian politics.

Yemen: Civil War and Independence

The North Yemen Civil War (1962–1970), another arena of Cold War rivalry, involves Saudi-supported royalists fighting Egyptian-backed republicans, leading to prolonged conflict and instability. In 1967, the British withdrawal from South Yemen results in South Yemeni Independence and the establishment of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, the Arab world's first Marxist state, deepening Cold War alignments.

Egypt: The Corrective Revolution

In May 1971, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat consolidates power through the Corrective Revolution, significantly reshaping Egyptian politics. Sadat's regime emphasizes political stability, economic liberalization, and strategic realignment away from Soviet influence toward improved relations with the West.

Regional Reform Demonstrations

Throughout this period, the Near East sees numerous reform demonstrations driven by socioeconomic grievances, ideological divisions, and opposition to autocratic governance. These movements reflect widespread dissatisfaction with the slow pace of reform and the increasing pressures of modernization and globalization.

Legacy of the Era: Persistent Instability and Future Conflict

The years from 1960 to 1971 lay critical foundations for ongoing political instability, regional conflict, and ideological polarization in the Near East. Unresolved political tensions, economic disparities, and external Cold War influences set the stage for continued turbulence and conflict in subsequent decades.

Atta has named a seven-member revolutionary council, in which communists rank prominently, to serve as the national government.

Three days after the coup, however, loyal army units storm the palace, rescue Nimeiry, and arrest Atta and his confederates.

Nimeiry, who blames the SCP for the coup, orders the arrest of hundreds of communists and dissident military officers.

The government subsequently executes some of these individuals and imprisons many others.

Nimiery, having survived the SCP-inspired coup, reaffirms his commitment to establishing a socialist state.

A provisional constitution, published in August 1971, describes Sudan as a "socialist democracy" and provides for a presidential form of government to replace the RCC.

A plebiscite the following month will elect Nimeiry to a six-year term as president.