Rudolf, born in Vienna, is the eldest son of Duke Albert II of Austria and his wife Joanna of Pfirt.

One of the third generation of Habsburg dukes in Austria, he is the first to be born within the duchy.

He therefore considers Austria his home, a sentiment that no doubt communicates itself to his subjects and contributes to his popularity.

Faced with the Habsburgs' loss of the Imperial crown upon the assassination of his grandfather King Albert I of Germany in 1308, Rudolf is one of the most energetic and active rulers of Austria in the late Middle Ages, and it is said of him that as a young man he already has the air of a king.

He had in 1357 married Catherine of Luxembourg, a daughter of Emperor Charles IV.

Eager to compete with his mighty father-in-law, who has transformed the Kingdom of Bohemia and its capital Prague into a radiant center of Imperial culture, Rudolf desires to raise the importance of his residence, Vienna, to a comparable or greater height.

For more than a century, the Habsburg dukes have chafed at the Popes' failure to make Vienna the seat of its own diocese, a status that they consider appropriate for the capital of a duchy.

Instead the city parish is subordinate to the Bishops of Passau, who have excellent connections to the Pope, apparently dooming Vienna's prospects in this regard.

Rudolf, however, resorts to something which could be considered imposture: He initiates the creation of a "metropolitan cathedral chapter" at the church of St. Stephen (which, according to the name, should be assigned to a bishop), whose members wear red garments as cardinals do.

The provost of the chapter receives the title of an "Archchancellor of Austria".

Rudolf extends St. Stephen's Cathedral, with the construction of its gothic nave being started under Rudolf's rule.

The construction efforts can be seen as an attempt to compete with St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague.

Rudolf has himself and his wife depicted on a cenotaph at the cathedral's entrance.

Similarly, by founding the University of Vienna in 1365, Rudolf seeks to match Charles IV's founding of the Charles University of Prague in 1348.

Still known as Alma Mater Rudolphina today, the University of Vienna is the oldest continuously operating university in the German-speaking world.

However, a faculty of theology, which is considered crucial for a university at that time, will not be established until 1385, twenty years after Rudolf's death.

To improve the economy of Vienna, Rudolf introduces many other measures, including the supervision by the mayor of sales of real property, instituted to prevent sales to the dead hand, i.e., to prevent economically unproductive ownership by the Church.

Rudolf also manages to establish a relatively stable currency, the so-called Wiener Pfennig (Vienna Penny).

Rudolf is best known for another bluff, the forgery of the Privilegium Maius, which de facto put him on par with the seven Prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire, compensating for Austria's failure to receive an electoral vote in the Golden Bull of 1356 issued by Emperor Charles IV.

The title of Archduke (Erzherzog), invented by Rudolf, will become an honorific title of all males of the House of Habsburg from the sixteenth century.

Fine frescoes decorate the vaults of the Church of Pantanasa, constructed in 1365 Mistra.

The frescoes in the Peribleptos Monastery Church, dating between 1348 and 1380, are a very rare surviving late Byzantine cycle, crucial for the understanding of Byzantine art.

Manuel Kantakouzenos had been recognized eventually as governor of Morea by the new regime in Constantinople.

Following the abdication of his father John Kantakouzenos, who is now the monk Josaph, the rest of his family had joined Manuel in the Morea.

Some of Manuel's enemies circulated a rumor that his older brother, the former Emperor Matthew Kantakouzenos, was plotting to replace him as governor, but when he was persuaded the rumor was false, the two worked together in the administration of the province.

For the larger portion of his reign, Manuel maintains peaceful relations with his Latin (Western European)neighbors and secures a long period of prosperity for the area.

Greco-Latin cooperation includes an alliance in the 1360  to contain the raids of Murad I into Moreas.

The Aragonese version of the Chronicle of the Morea states that, in alliance with Gautier de Lor, the Venetians, and the Hospitallers, he scored a naval victory over a Turkish fleet off Megara, setting fire to thirty-five of the enemy ships; the survivors then fled to Roger de Llúria, the Aragonese vicar-general at Thebes.

André Beauneveu: Royal Sculptor and Artist of Fourteenth-Century France

André Beauneveu, a sculptor, painter, and architect from Valenciennes, was one of the most highly esteemed artists of the French royal family in the second half of the fourteenth century. Despite the scarcity of biographical records, his impressive commissions and lasting artistic influence attest to his renown in both France and England.

Early Career and Work in England (Before 1364)

• Beauneveu worked under the patronage of Philippa of Hainault, the Queen of England and wife of Edward III.
• The earliest documentary reference to "Master Andrew the Painter" (presumed to be Beauneveu) appears in 1359, when he worked for Duchess Yolande de Bar, decorating a chapel in her castle at Nieppe (now destroyed).

Royal Patronage in France Under Charles V (1364–1366)

• By 1364, Beauneveu had moved to Paris, becoming part of King Charles V’s artistic workshop.
• The king referred to him as “our esteemed Andreu Bauneveu, our sculptor,” signaling his prominence at the royal court.
• In 1365, Charles V commissioned Beauneveu to create four monumental tomb sculptures for the royal crypt at Saint-Denis, the dynastic burial site of French kings.

The Saint-Denis Royal Tomb Project

• Charles V aimed to legitimize and reinforce the authority of the new Valois dynasty by creating spectacular tombs for himself and his immediate ancestors, placing them in the Capetian necropolis at Saint-Denis.
• Beauneveu designed the tombs in the latest artistic style, featuring:
  • Brilliant white marble gisants (recumbent effigies of the deceased).
  • Polished black marble slabs, creating a striking contrast.
• These effigies, particularly that of Charles V, were crafted in the representacion au vif style (representation from life), displaying highly personalized and lifelike features, distinguishing them from earlier, more stylized medieval tomb sculptures.

Completion by Other Artists and Legacy

• Beauneveu was paid 4,700 gold francs for his work, demonstrating his high status and the importance of the project.
• Records of payments to Beauneveu cease in 1366, suggesting that he left the project, which was then completed by Jean de Liège and other sculptors.
• Although the tombs were destroyed in 1793 during the French Revolution, their form is preserved in late seventeenth-century drawings commissioned by Roger de Gaignières.
• The surviving gisants (effigies) of Charles V and his family are still at Saint-Denis, though now mounted on plain bases.

Beauneveu’s Influence and Later Recognition

• His work set a new standard for royal tomb sculpture, influencing future commissions, including the Burgundian necropolis at Champmol a decade later.
• His realistic approach to portraiture and refined use of marble established him as one of the most innovative artists of the period.

André Beauneveu’s masterful sculptures at Saint-Denis and his prominent role in Charles V’s court cemented his reputation as one of the leading artists of fourteenth-century France, bridging the artistic traditions of France, England, and the Low Countries.