The Middle East (1972–1983): Conflict, Revolution, and New Realities

Between 1972 and 1983, the Middle East experiences profound political transformations, marked by regional rivalries, revolutionary upheaval, and strategic realignments amid intensifying Cold War dynamics.

Oil and Power in the Gulf

In the Persian Gulf, the newly independent United Arab Emirates (UAE) rapidly consolidates its statehood following the inclusion of Ras al Khaymah in February 1972. The wealth generated by petroleum resources transforms Abu Dhabi and Dubai into dynamic economic hubs, attracting significant international investment.

Qatar and Bahrain, having declared independence in 1971, swiftly enter the United Nations and the Arab League, securing international recognition. Bahrain develops into a banking and financial center, while Qatar expands its petroleum and natural gas industries, establishing firm diplomatic ties with the West, particularly the United States and Britain.

Oman's Emergence from Isolation

Under the rule of Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said—who had assumed power in a British-backed coup in 1970—Oman emerges from decades of isolation. After suppressing the Dhofar Rebellion in 1975 with assistance from Britain, Iran, and Jordan, Sultan Qaboos initiates sweeping modernization. Oman invests heavily in infrastructure, education, and healthcare, gradually integrating into the broader Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), established in 1981 alongside Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and the UAE, to bolster collective security and regional stability.

Iraq: Rise of Saddam Hussein

In Iraq, the Ba'ath Party tightens its grip on power. Saddam Hussein, as vice president from 1968 and formally ascending as president in 1979, embarks on ambitious modernization campaigns supported by oil revenues. His regime, however, is increasingly characterized by political repression, persecution of rivals, and aggressive regional ambitions, notably initiating a devastating eight-year conflict with Iran in September 1980. The Iran-Iraq War—fueled by territorial disputes, ideological differences between Saddam's secular Arab nationalism and Iran's revolutionary Shi'a Islam, and competition for regional dominance—inflicts catastrophic human and economic losses on both sides.

Iran: Revolution and Regional Shockwaves

In Iran, the political landscape dramatically shifts with the Iranian Revolution of 1979. The revolution, led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, topples the pro-Western Pahlavi dynasty, ushering in a fiercely anti-Western Islamic Republic that profoundly alters regional and global geopolitics. The revolution's immediate aftermath includes the hostage crisis at the U.S. Embassy in Tehran, severely damaging Iran’s relationship with the West, particularly the United States.

The establishment of an Islamic revolutionary government ignites tensions throughout the region, emboldening Shi'a groups in Lebanon, Iraq, and the Gulf States, thereby heightening sectarian and geopolitical divides.

Lebanon: Civil War and Foreign Intervention

Lebanon descends into civil war in 1975, fueled by longstanding religious and sectarian tensions exacerbated by demographic shifts and Palestinian militant presence following the 1970 expulsion from Jordan (Black September). The war rapidly fragments Lebanon into militia-controlled enclaves, inviting repeated foreign interventions from Syria and Israel.

Israel's 1982 invasion—dubbed "Operation Peace for Galilee"—aims to drive out the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), headquartered in Beirut. The invasion culminates in a prolonged siege of West Beirut and the forced departure of PLO leader Yasser Arafat and thousands of his fighters. It also triggers horrific episodes of violence, notably the Sabra and Shatila massacres, in which Lebanese Phalangist militias murder hundreds of Palestinian civilians under the indirect oversight of Israeli forces.

Syria under Assad: Consolidation and Conflict

In Syria, President Hafez al-Assad (in power since 1970) consolidates a repressive, authoritarian regime underpinned by the Alawite minority. Assad positions Syria as a central player in Arab politics, maintaining close ties with the Soviet Union while supporting anti-Israeli resistance movements across the region. He firmly places Syria in opposition to Israel and Western-aligned Arab regimes, notably supporting Lebanese factions and the Palestinian cause.

Assad's rule faces significant internal challenges, climaxing in 1982 when Syrian government forces brutally crush an Islamist-led rebellion by the Muslim Brotherhood in the city of Hama, killing thousands in a move that cements Assad’s authoritarian grip but deeply scars Syrian society.

Turkey and the Cyprus Conflict

In 1974, Turkey invades Cyprus in response to a coup d'état by Greek Cypriot nationalists aiming to unite the island with Greece (enosis). Turkish military forces establish control over the northern third of Cyprus, leading to the island’s de facto partition. This military intervention triggers international condemnation but also reshapes Turkey’s strategic position in the Eastern Mediterranean. The partition remains unresolved decades later, deeply influencing regional diplomacy.

Soviet and U.S. Rivalry: The Middle East as a Cold War Front

Throughout this era, the Middle East is a crucial theater for the Cold War, with the United States and Soviet Union competing fiercely for influence. American support for Israel and pro-Western Gulf states contrasts sharply with Soviet backing for Syria, Iraq, and various Palestinian factions. Superpower rivalry exacerbates regional tensions, fueling proxy conflicts and facilitating massive arms transfers to regional actors, intensifying hostilities in Lebanon, the Iran-Iraq War, and the Arab-Israeli conflict.

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)

The Gulf Cooperation Council, established in 1981 by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the UAE, and Oman, underscores a growing Arab effort to manage regional security independently, responding to revolutionary instability in Iran, Iraq's aggression, and Soviet intervention in Afghanistan. The GCC solidifies diplomatic and economic collaboration, while reinforcing security partnerships with Western allies, particularly the United States.

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Legacy of Revolution, War, and Re-alignment (1972–1983)

The years between 1972 and 1983 reshape the Middle East profoundly. The Iranian Revolution introduces a lasting ideological dynamic between revolutionary Islamism and secular nationalism. The devastating Iran-Iraq War entrenches bitter sectarian and national divides, whose consequences echo into future decades.

Lebanon’s civil war marks the beginning of sustained regional instability involving international actors, setting precedents for prolonged foreign interference. The creation of the GCC reflects an increasing sense of collective regional identity among Gulf monarchies, defining future political and economic strategies.

Finally, the entrenched presence of the United States and Soviet Union highlights the Middle East as a focal point of global Cold War tensions, laying the groundwork for continued external involvement and rivalry that profoundly impacts regional stability and security for decades to follow.

The Greek government’s involvement in the pro-Greek coup d’etat in Cyprus brings the nation to the brink of war with Turkey and leads to the downfall of the military dictatorship.

Upon the restoration of democratic rule under conservative civilian Konstantinos Karamanlis, Andreas Papandreou returns from exile to Greece to form the Panhellenic Socialist Movement.

A coup d'etat in Athens in November 1973 had made Brigadier General Dimitrios Ioannidis leader of the junta.

Rigidly anticommunist, Ioannidis had served on Cyprus in the 1960s with the National Guard.

His experiences had convinced him that Makarios should be removed from office because of domestic leftist support and his visits to communist capitals.

Cypriot intelligence finds evidence during the spring of 1974, that EOKA B is planning a coup and
is being supplied, controlled, and funded by the military government in Athens.

EOKA B is banned, but its operations continue underground.

Makarios narrowly escapes death in the attack by the Greek-led National Guard.

He flees the presidential palace and goes to ...

Makarios writes to the Greek president Phaedon Gizikis early in July, demanding that the remaining six hundred and fifty Greek officers assigned to the National Guard be withdrawn.

He also accuses the junta of plotting against his life and against the government of Cyprus.

Makarios sends his letter (which is released to the public) to the Greek president on July 2, 1974; the reply comes thirteen days later, not in the form of a letter but in an order from Athens to the Cypriot
National Guard to overthrow its commander in chief and take control of the island.

...Paphos.

A British helicopter takes him to the Sovereign Base Area at ...

...Akrotiri, whence he goes to London.

Several days later, Makarios addresses a meeting of the UN Security Council, where he is accepted as the legal president of the Republic of Cyprus.

At the same time, Turkish prime minister Bülent Ecevit flies to London to elicit British aid in a joint effort in Cyprus, as called for in the 1959 Treaty of Guarantee, but the British are either unwilling or unprepared and decline to take action as a guarantor power.

The United States takes no action to bolster the Makarios government, but Joseph J. Sisco, Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs, goes to London and the eastern Mediterranean to stave off the impending Turkish invasion and the war between Greece and Turkey that might follow.

The Turks demand removal of Nikos Sampson and the Greek officers from the National Guard and a binding guarantee of Cypriot independence.

Sampson, of course, is expendable to the Athens regime, but Sisco can get an agreement only to reassign the six hundred and fifty Greek officers.

Glafcos Clerides, who as president of the House of Representatives automatically succeeds the head of state in the latter's absence, is sworn in as acting president of the Republic of Cyprus; while. ..