Clement VII has attempted to steer a middle course between King Francis and Emperor Charles in their struggle for northern Italy.

Charles finances his extensive empire by borrowing huge sums of money from the wealthy bankers and mineowners like the German house of Fugger or from the well-organized money market of Antwerp.

In return, the lenders receive monopoly rights and political protection.

Nevertheless, funds are often scarce.

In response to Clement’s formation of the League of Cognac allying the papacy with France, Milan, Venice, and Florence against the empire, Habsburg-funded Spanish and German mercenaries invade Italy to oppose the league and quickly conquer Milan.

Henry VIII, rebuffed in his attempt to have the alliance signed in England, will not join until 1527.

The League of Cognac’s forces quickly seize Lodi, but …

…Imperial troops march into Lombardy and soon force Sforza to abandon Milan.

Francesco Guicciardini, having successfully governed Modena and Reggio, had been appointed to govern Parma, and in 1523 had been appointed viceregent of the Romagna by Clement VII.

These high offices had rendered Guicciardini the virtual master of the Papal States beyond the Apennine Mountains.

As he will later describe himself during this period: "If you had seen messer Francesco in the Romagna...with his house full of tapestries, silver, servants thronged from the entire province where—since everything was completely referred to him—no one, from the Pope down, recognized anyone as his superior...".

Like many Florentine aristocrats of his day, Guicciardini believes in a mixed republican government based on the model of the Venetian constitution; despite working so often and closely with the Medici, he views their rule as tyrannical.

Guicciardini is still able to reconcile his republican ideals and his support of the Medici: "The equality of men under a popular government is by no means contradicted if one citizen enjoys greater reputation than another, provided it proceed from the love and reverence of all, and can be withheld by the people at their pleasure.

Indeed, without such supports, republics can hardly last."

(Francesco Guicciardini, Maxims and Reflections (Ricordi), Mario Domandi, trans., Introd.

by Nicolai Rubinstein, (New York, Harper & Row, 1965) p.144) The political turmoil in Italy is continuously intensifying.

As hostilities between King Francis I of France and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, escalated, the Pope had remained undecided over which side to back and so sought Guicciardini's advice.

Guicciardini had advised an alliance with France and urged Clement to conclude the League of Cognac in 1526, which had led to war with Charles V. Later that year, as the forces of Charles V threatened to attack, Clement had made Guicciardini lieutenant-general of the papal army.

Guicciardini had been powerless to influence the commander of papal forces, Francesco Maria della Rovere, Duke of Urbino, to take action.

However, in April 1527, Guicciardini succeeds in averting an attack on Florence from the rebellious imperial army, which turns toward Rome instead.

The Colonna had meanwhile organized an attack on Rome, defeating the Papal forces and briefly seizing control of the city in March 1526; they had soon been soon paid off and departed, however.

The Imperial army has defeated the French army in Italy, but funds are not available to pay the soldiers.

The thirty-four thousand Imperial troops mutiny and force their commander, Charles III of Bourbon, to lead them towards Rome.

Apart from some six thousand Spaniards under the Duke, the army includes some fourteen thousand Landsknechts under Georg von Frundsberg, some Italian infantry led by Fabrizio Maramaldo, the powerful Italian cardinal Pompeo Colonna and Luigi Gonzaga, and also some cavalry under command of Ferdinando Gonzaga and Philibert, Prince of Orange.

Though Martin Luther himself is not in favor of it, some who consider themselves followers of Luther's Protestant movement view the Papal capital as a target for religious reasons, and share with the soldiers a desire for the sack and pillage of a very rich city that appear to be an easy target.

Numerous bandits, along with the League's deserters, join the army during its march.

The Duke leaves Arezzo on April 20, 1527, taking advantage of the chaos among the Venetians and their allies after a revolt that has broken out in Florence against the Medici.

In this way, …

…the largely undisciplined troops sack Acquapendente and …

…San Lorenzo alle Grotte, and …

…occupy Viterbo and …

…Ronciglione, …

…reaching the walls of Rome on May 5.

The troops defending Rome are not at all numerous, consisting of five thousand militiamen led by Renzo da Ceri and one hundred and eighty-six Papal Swiss Guard.

The city's fortifications include the massive walls, and it possessed a good artillery force, which the Imperial army lacks.

Duke Charles needs to conquer the city hastily, to avoid the risk of being trapped between the besieged city and the League's army.

The Imperial army attacks the walls at the Gianicolo and Vatican Hills on May 6.

Duke Charles is fatally wounded in the assault, allegedly shot by Benvenuto Cellini.

The Duke is wearing his famous white cloak to mark him out to his troops, but it also has the unintended consequence of pointing him out as the leader to his enemies.

The death of the last respected command authority among the Imperial army causes any restraint in the soldiers to disappear, and they easily capture the walls of Rome the same day.

Philibert of Châlon takes command of the armies, but he is not as popular or feared, leaving him with little authority.

One of the Swiss Guard's most notable hours occurs at this time.

Almost the entire guard is massacred by Imperial troops on the steps of St Peter's Basilica.

Of the one hundred and eighty-nine guards on duty only the forty-two who accompany the pope survive, but the bravery of the rearguard ensures that Pope Clement VII escapes to safety, down the Passetto di Borgo, a secret corridor that still links the Vatican City to Castel Sant'Angelo.