Ottoman–Venetian War (1537–1540)

A combined force of Austrians and Bohemians, twenty-four thousand strong, unsuccessfully besieges the Ottoman fortress of Eszèk in 1537, in response to depredations by Ottoman soldiers in the region, a violation of the truce of 1533 ending the previous Austro-Turkish War.

The Ottomans also suspect Moldavia’s current governor of intrigue with Vienna.

In reaction to a presumed Venetian insult, …

…Süleyman prepares a large Turkish land and naval force to besiege the island of Corfu but abandons his plans with the arrival of the strong imperial-Venetian fleet commanded by Doria.

The armies of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent had been stopped at Vienna in 1529, but the expansion of the Ottoman Empire is the main danger to Christianity in Europe in 1538.

A Christian offensive in the Mediterranean had attempted to eliminate the danger of the great Turkish fleet in 1535, when a strong armada under Don Álvaro de Bazán and Andrea Doria captured the port of Tunis, expelling Ottoman admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa from the waters of the Western Mediterranean.

The Ottoman admiral was then required to return to Constantinople, where he had been appointed commander of a great fleet to conduct a campaign against the Republic of Venice's possessions in the Aegean and Ionian Seas.

Barbarossa has captured almost all the remaining Christian outposts in the Ionian and Aegean Seas, including the islands of Syros, Aegina, Ios, Paros, Tinos, Karpathos, Kasos, Naxos, and besieged Corfu.

The Italian cities of Otranto and Ugento and the fortress of Castro, in the province of Lecce, are also looted.

The Republic of Venice, frightened by the loss of their possessions and the ruin of their trade, conduct a vigorous campaign for the creation of a "Holy League" to recover the lost territories and expel the Ottomans from the sea.

Pope Paul III succeeds in creating a league that in February 1538, unites the Papacy itself, the Republic of Venice, the Empire of Charles V, the Archduchy of Austria and the Knights of Malta.

The Allied fleet for the campaign is supposed to consist of two hundred galleys and another one hundred auxiliary ships, and the army of about fifty thousand infantry and forty-five hundred cavalry, all that can be gathered are are only one hundred and thirty galleys and an army of around fifteen thousand infantry, mostly Spaniards.

The command of the fleet is given nominally to the Genoese Andrea Doria, but Vicenzo Capello and Marco Grimaldi, commanding officers of the Papal and Venetian fleets respectively, have almost twice as many ships as Doria.

The commander of the army is unquestionably Hernando Gonzaga, Viceroy of Sicily.

Differences among the commanders of the fleet diminish its effectiveness against an experienced opponent like Barbarossa.

Barbarossa defeats an imperial-Venetian fleet under Doria at the Battle of Preveza off the Albanian coast on September 27, 1538, thereby giving to the Ottomans the naval initiative in the Mediterranean.

It is widely speculated that Doria’s prevarication and lack of zeal were due to his unwillingness to risk his own ships (he personally owns a substantial number of the "Spanish-Genoese" fleet) and his long-standing enmity towards Venice, his home city's fierce rival and the primary target of Ottoman aggression at this time.

Venice surrenders Dalmatia and the Morea, its last possession in the Aegean, thus assuring an Ottoman naval supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean that will remain unbroken for three decades.

Michelangelo, commissioned by Pope Paul III, designs the Campidoglio, the plaza and its rebuilt classical structures atop the Capitoline Hill, on which construction begins in 1538.

The gigantic, two-story Corinthian order of the Palazzo dei Conservatori on the Capitoline is an idiosyncratic reordering of the Renaissance architectural vocabulary around outsize and overwhelmingly powerful elements.

Ignatius Loyola and his six associates, including Francis Xavier, had received ordination in 1537.

The group wishes to work in the Holy Land, but Europe's wars with Ottoman Turkey make this impossible.

As an alternative, they had decided to offer their services to the pope.

Paul III accepts the offer of missionary service; Ignatius draws up the rule of life for a new religious order in 1538.

The Holy League fleet provides support to Spanish land forces on the Dalmatian coast that capture the small town of Castelnuovo, a strategic fortress between the Venetian possessions of Cattaro and Ragusa in the area known as Venetian Albania.

Venice therefore claims ownership of the city, but Charles V refuses to cede it.

This is the beginning of the end of the Holy League.

The town of Castelnuovo is garrisoned with approximately four thousand men.

The main force is a tercio of Spanish veteran soldiers numbering about thirty-five hundred men under the experienced Maestro de Campo Francisco Sarmiento de Mendoza y Manuel. This tercio, named Tercio of Castelnuovo, is formed by fifteen flags (companies) belonging to other tercios, among them the Old Tercio of Lombardy, dissolved the year before after a mutiny for lack of pay. The garrison also includes one hundred and fifty light cavalry soldiers, a small contingent of Greek soldiers and knights under Ándres Escrápula, and some artillery pieces managed by fifteen gunners under captain Juan de Urrés. The chaplain of Andrea Doria, named Jeremías, also remains in Castelnuovo along with forty clerics and traders and is appointed bishop of the town.

The reason for the garrison's large size is that Castelnuovo is projected to be the beachhead for a great offensive against the heart of the Ottoman Empire.

However, the fate of the troops in the fortress depends entirely on the support of the fleet, and this had been defeated by Barbarossa at Preveza.

Moreover, in a short time Venice withdraws from the Holy League after accepting a disadvantageous agreement with the Ottomans.

Without Venetian ships, the Allied fleet has no chance to defeat the Ottoman fleet commanded by Barbarossa, who is by this time supported by another experienced officer, Turgut Reis.

Suleiman orders Barbarossa to reorganize and rearm his fleet during the winter months to have it ready for the battle in the spring of 1539.

Ten thousand infantry and four thousand Janissaries are embarked aboard the warships to reinforce the troops of the galleys.

According to the orders received, Barbarossa's army, numbering about two hundred ships with twenty thousand fighting men aboard, are to blockade Castelnuevo by sea while the forces of the Ottoman governor of Bosnia, a Persian named Ulamen, is to besiege the fortress by land in command of thirty thousand soldiers.

Sarmiento, meanwhile, has used the peaceful months prior to the siege to improve the defenses of the town, repairing walls and bastions and building new fortifications.

In the event he cannot do much due to a lack of available means, as there is no plan to fortify the town since it is supposed to function as a beachhead.

Captain Alcocer is sent to Spain with instructions to call for help; Pedro de Sotomayor is sent to Sicily and Captain Zambrana to Brindisi, all in vain.

Andrea Doria, who is in Otranto with fofty-seven Imperial and four Maltese galleys, receives news of Castelnuovo's situation, but given the inferiority of his fleet he sends a message to Sarmiento recommending him to surrender.

Barbarossa's army is by 23 July ready to begin a general assault and his artillery prepared to break down the walls of Castelnuovo.

Enjoying a vast numerical superiority over the Spanish garrison, which is completely isolated and unable to receive support or supplies, Barbarossa offers an honorable surrender to the Spanish.

Sarmiento and his men will be granted a safe passage to Italy, the soldiers retaining their weapons and flags.

Barbarossa adds to his offer the incentive of giving each soldier twenty ducats.

His only demand to Sarmiento is the abandonment of his artillery and gunpowder.

Two squad corporals of Captain Vizcaino's company, Juan Alcaraz and Francisco de Tapia, manage to return to Naples and write their version of events many years later.

They record the answer given to Barbarossa that "the Maestro de Campo consulted with all the captains, and the captains with his officers, and they decided that they preferred to die in service of God and His Majesty."

The great assault on the city is launched shortly after, and last  all day.

Almost all of the Janissaries and sixteen thousand from the other Ottoman units are killed in the assault.

According to rumor, Turkish losses amounted to thirty-seven thousand dead. Of the Spanish troops only two hundred survive, most of them wounded.

Half of the prisoners and all the clerics are also slaughtered to satisfy the Ottoman soldiers, who are angry at the great losses which they had suffered in capturing the city.

The few survivors are taken as slaves to Constantinople.

Twenty-five of them will manage to escape from prison six years later and sail to the port of Messina.

The Venetians, As a consequence of the Venetian-Turkish War that began in 1537, lose their last foothold in mainland Greece to the Turks in 1540, having ceded to the Ottoman empire its Aegean islands and mainland outposts in the Morea, including Návplion and ...

...Monemvasia.

The Ottoman Empire is a world power when Suleyman dies in 1566.

Most of the great cities of Islam—Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, Cairo, Tunis, and Baghdad— are under the sultan's crescent flag.

The Porte exercises direct control over Anatolia, the sub-Danubian Balkan provinces, Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia.

Egypt, Mecca, and the North African provinces are governed under special regulations, as are satellite domains in Arabia and the Caucasus, and among the Crimean Tartars.

In addition, the native rulers of Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, and Ragusa (Dubrovnik) are vassals of the sultan.