The Ottoman sultan Selim I (1512-20), known as Selim the Grim, conquers Egypt in 1517, defeating the Mamluk forces at Ar Raydaniyah, immediately outside Cairo.

The origins of the Ottoman Empire go back to the Turkish- speaking tribes who had crossed the frontier into Arab lands beginning in the tenth century.

These Turkish tribes had established themselves in Baghdad and Anatolia, but they had been destroyed by the Mongols in the thirteenth century.

Petty Turkish dynasties called emirates were formed in Anatolia in the wake of the Mongol invasion.

The leader of one of those dynasties was Osman (1280-1324), the founder of the Ottoman Empire.

His emirate, one of many in the thirteenth century, had by the sixteenth century become an empire, destined to be one of the largest and longest lived in world history.

The Ottomans already had a substantial empire in Eastern Europe by the fourteenth century.

In 1453 they conquer Constantinople, the imperial capital, which becomes the Ottoman capital and is renamed Istanbul.

The Ottomans add the Arab provinces, including Egypt, to their empire between 1512 and 1520.

The victorious Selim I leaves behind in Egypt one of his most trusted collaborators, Hayır Bey, as the ruler of Egypt.

Hayır Bey rules as the sultan's vassal, not as a provincial governor.

He keeps his court in the citadel, the ancient residence of the rulers of Egypt.

Selim I does away with the Mamluk sultanate, but neither he nor his successors succeed in extinguishing Mamluk power and influence in Egypt.

Ottoman sultan Bayezid II, a son of Mehmed II, consolidates the conquests of his father and lays the bases for new expansion into the Arab world and central Europe.

He is, however, preoccupied from the beginning of his reign in 1481 by the revolt of his younger brother Cem in alliance with the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria and the papacy.

The Middle East: 1480–1491 CE

Realignments, Rivalries, and Imperial Ambitions

Ottoman Expansion and Consolidation

Following their victory over the Aq Qoyunlu in 1473, the Ottomans under Bayezid II (r. 1481–1512) pursue a more cautious but strategic expansion policy. Bayezid's reign contrasts with that of his father, Mehmed II, prioritizing internal stability, administrative consolidation, and diplomatic maneuvering over military conquest. This approach stabilizes Ottoman territorial gains and allows for internal infrastructure development, administrative reforms, and increased trade with both European and Middle Eastern powers.

Ottoman-Mamluk Rivalry and Conflict

A dispute arises in 1485 over a Turkmen territory ruled by the Mamluk-supported Duldakir dynasty in Cappadocia. The Mamluks—against whom the military leaders of Ottoman sultan Bayezid II press for revenge in retaliation for Mamluk support of his rebellious brother in the recent civil war—interfere in Cappadocia by stirring up eastern Turkmen nomads and asserting authority over Lesser Armenia. The Ottomans initiate a series of six annual campaigns against the Mamluks, five of which end indecisively and one of which ends, in 1488, in a small victory by the Mamluks. Peace negotiations in 1491 gain the Mamluks territorial concessions and suspend fighting.

Continued Decline of the Aq Qoyunlu

After the crushing defeat at Bashkent in 1473, the Aq Qoyunlu confederation enters a period of rapid decline marked by internal dissension, regional rebellions, and external pressures from rival powers, particularly the rising Safavid order and the Ottomans. The death of Uzun Hasan in 1478 exacerbates internal fragmentation, weakening Aq Qoyunlu authority and enabling the emergence of smaller, rival principalities across Persia and eastern Anatolia.

Rise of the Safavid Movement

In this period, the Safavid order, led by the charismatic religious and military leader Sheikh Haydar (d. 1488), begins to assert itself more aggressively. The Safavid followers, known as Qizilbash ("red heads," named for their distinctive red turbans), gain prominence and territorial control in northwestern Persia and parts of the Caucasus. Though Sheikh Haydar is killed in a conflict with the Aq Qoyunlu, his movement continues to grow, setting the stage for the future Safavid Empire.

Mamluk Political and Economic Stability

In contrast to turmoil elsewhere, the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and Syria under Sultan Qaitbay (r. 1468–1496) experiences a period of relative stability and prosperity. Qaitbay reinforces the Mamluk position in the Levant through diplomatic engagement, trade expansion, and military preparedness. His reign is notable for extensive architectural patronage, including fortresses, mosques, and public works projects that enhance both defense and civic life.

Georgian Resistance and Cultural Flourishing

The Kingdom of Georgia, despite increasing pressure from both the Ottoman Empire and local Turkmen factions, manages to retain its autonomy through skillful diplomacy and occasional military resistance. Georgian culture continues to flourish, producing significant literary and artistic achievements that underscore the resilience of Georgian identity amid ongoing geopolitical challenges.

Legacy of the Era

From 1480 to 1491, the Middle East witnesses strategic realignments, with the Ottoman Empire reinforcing its control and engaging in protracted rivalry with the Mamluks over regional dominance. The Aq Qoyunlu experiences profound internal collapse, and the Safavid movement rises in prominence. Meanwhile, the Mamluks provide a rare model of stability and prosperity, and Georgia continues its cultural resilience, illustrating the region's complexity amid shifting power dynamics.

A dispute arises in 1485 over a Turkmen territory ruled by the Mamluk-supported Duldakir dynasty in Cappadocia.

The Mamluks—against whom the military leaders of Ottoman sultan Bayezid I press for revenge in retaliation for Mamluk support of his rebellious brother in the recent civil war—interfere in Cappadocia by stirring up eastern Turkmen nomads and asserting authority over Lesser Armenia.

The Ottomans initiate a series of six annual campaigns against the Mamluks, five of which end indecisively and one of which ends, in 1488, in a small victory by the Mamluks.

Peace negotiations in 1491 gain the Mamluks territorial concessions and suspend fighting.

Bayezid now turns to the east, where previous conquests as far as the Euphrates had brought the Ottomans up to the borders of the Mamluk empire.

A dispute arises in 1485 over a Turkmen territory ruled by the Mamluk-supported Duldakir (Dhu al-Qadr dynasty in Cappadocia), which controls much of Cilicia and the mountains south of Lake Van.

The rising power of the Ottoman Turks challenges that of the Mamluks for the control of western Asia.

Hostilities break out in 1486 when Sultan Qaitbay contests with Bayezid II the possession of some border towns in Palestine.

The Ottomans again send a major army against the Mamluk Sultanate in 1487, consisting in a great number of regular army units and Janissaries, supported by the fleet and the forces of Dulkadir, and led by the Grand Vizier Koca Davud Pasha.

Davud Pasha initially plans an all-out offensive expedition, but his plan is canceled by Bayezid II, who assigns him to attack the Turgutlu and Varsak tribes.

When Davud Pasha reaches the Turgut and Varsak territories, the Varsak leaders, including the chief of the tribe, submit to him and swear allegiance to the Ottoman Empire.

The Mamluks—against whom the military leaders of Ottoman sultan Bayezid press for revenge in retaliation for Mamluk support of his rebellious brother in the recent civil war—interfere in Cappadocia by stirring up eastern Turkmen nomads and asserting authority over Lesser Armenia.

Hostilities had broken out in 1486 when Sultan Qaitbay contested with Bayezid the possession of some border towns in Palestine.

The Ottomans, desirous of a share in control of the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina, had initiated a series of annual campaigns against the Mamluks, five of which end indecisively and one of which ends, in 1488, in a small victory by the Mamluks.

Struggles for succession after the death of Corvinus in 1490, will leave the Middle Danube front relatively quiet for the remainder of Bayezid's reign.

The Ottoman Empire’s intermittent war with the Mamluks has been inconclusive, and peace negotiations in 1491 gain the Mamluks territorial concessions and suspend fighting.

Bayezid's disinclination to commit major forces to the endeavor lead to dissension and criticism on the part of his more militant followers.

To counter this, ...

The governor of Egypt is able to perform his tasks without the interference of the Mamluk beys (bey is the highest rank among the Mamluks) only in the first century of Ottoman rule.

A series of revolts by various elements of the garrison troops occurs during the latter decades of the sixteenth century and the early seventeenth century.

There is also a revival within the Mamluk military structure during these years.

Political supremacy has passed to the beys by the middle of the seventeenth century.

As the historian Daniel Crecelius has written, from this point on the history of Ottoman Egypt can be explained as the struggle between the Ottomans and the Mamluks for control of the administration and, hence, the revenues of Egypt, and the competition among rival Mamluk houses for control of the beylicate.

This struggle will affect Egyptian history until the late eighteenth century when one Mamluk bey gains an unprecedented control over the military and political structures and ousts the Ottoman governor.