Northwest Europe (1540–1683 CE): Religious Turmoil, Colonial Expansion, and Political Transformation

Religious Turmoil and Conflicts

Between 1540 and 1683 CE, Northwest Europe was profoundly shaped by religious upheavals stemming from the Reformation. England experienced significant turbulence under Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. Mary's Catholic restoration saw persecution of Protestants, earning her the title "Bloody Mary," marked notably by the burning of two hundred and seventy-four Protestants. Elizabeth I's moderate Anglican settlement established relative stability but intensified tensions with Catholic Spain, climaxing in the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588). Scotland faced similar religious strife, culminating in the establishment of Presbyterianism under the influence of John Knox. Denmark became officially Lutheran around 1550 under King Christian III, solidifying Lutheranism's dominance throughout Scandinavia.

The English Civil War and Revolution

Political and religious tensions erupted in the English Civil War (1642–1651) between Royalists (Cavaliers) and Parliamentarians (Roundheads), ending with the execution of King Charles I and the establishment of a brief republican Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell's subsequent military campaigns in Ireland (1649–1653) resulted in catastrophic losses, significantly reshaping Irish society. The monarchy was restored under Charles II in 1660, followed by political and religious instability under James II, culminating in the peaceful Glorious Revolution (1688), solidifying parliamentary authority and Protestant ascendancy.

Ireland: Conflict and Colonization

English colonization intensified significantly, notably through the Plantation of Ulster (1609) and the Tudor conquest initiated by Henry VIII's re-creation of the title King of Ireland in 1542. Irish resistance culminated in the Nine Years' War (1593–1603) and the consequential Flight of the Earls (1607). The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, particularly Cromwell’s conquest, inflicted severe demographic losses, including approximately two hundred thousand civilian deaths from famine, disease, and conflict-related displacement, and the forced indenture of fifty thousand to the West Indies.

Scottish Union and Cultural Renaissance

Scotland underwent significant religious and political upheaval leading to the Union of the Crowns (1603) under James VI of Scotland (later James I of England). Cultural and educational achievements flourished during the Scottish Renaissance, significantly enhancing Scottish literary and intellectual contributions.

Economic Expansion and Colonial Ventures

Economic transformations accelerated through colonial expansion, highlighted by English settlements such as Jamestown (1607) in North America, initiating extensive colonial activity. English immigration, particularly indentured servants, became prominent, with approximately seventy percent of arrivals between 1630–1660 as indentured labor. Trading companies, notably the East India Company (1600) and the Dutch East India Company (VOC, 1602), expanded global commerce, with London, Amsterdam, and Bristol emerging as key international trade hubs.

Scientific Revolution and Intellectual Growth

The era witnessed significant scientific breakthroughs and intellectual advancements. Figures like Francis Bacon, Robert Boyle, and Isaac Newton revolutionized natural philosophy, laying foundations for modern science. Institutions such as the Royal Society (1660) systematically promoted scientific inquiry and innovation.

Cultural Flourishing and Artistic Achievements

Cultural developments flourished significantly during this period. England’s literary scene was dominated by figures like William Shakespeare, contributing profoundly to drama and literature during the Elizabethan era, a period often regarded as England's golden age. Artistic accomplishments, notably by Dutch Golden Age painters like Rembrandt van Rijn and Johannes Vermeer, significantly influenced European art.

Norse Territories and Scandinavian Shifts

Iceland, under Danish-Norwegian control, formally adopted Lutheranism by 1550 following the execution of Catholic Bishop Jón Arason. The island continued facing severe economic and climatic challenges, significantly affecting societal structures and stability.

Environmental Challenges and the Little Ice Age

The Little Ice Age continued to exert considerable environmental pressures, severely impacting agricultural productivity across Northwest Europe. Societies adapted by diversifying economies, enhancing trade networks, and developing technological innovations to mitigate these stresses.

Social Unrest and Economic Pressures

Socio-economic disparities intensified, exacerbating rural and urban tensions, leading to frequent local uprisings and unrest. Economic shifts, agricultural crises, and urbanization pressures contributed significantly to social instability, prompting governmental interventions and reforms.

Legacy of the Age

By 1683 CE, Northwest Europe had experienced profound religious conflicts, political transformations, economic expansions, and cultural achievements. These dynamic developments deeply influenced regional identities, governance structures, economic conditions, and cultural traditions, firmly establishing frameworks that shaped modern Europe.

The title of King of Ireland is re-created in 1542 by King Henry VIII of England, of the Tudor dynasty.

English rule of law is reinforced and expanded in Ireland during the latter part of the sixteenth century, leading to the Tudor conquest of Ireland.

A near complete conquest of Ireland is achieved by the turn of the seventeenth century, following the Nine Years' War and the Flight of the Earls.

This control is further consolidated during the wars and conflicts of the seventeenth century, which witnesses English and Scottish colonization in the Plantations of Ireland, the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Williamite War.

Irish losses during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (which, in Ireland, include the Irish Confederacy and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland) are estimated to include twenty thousand battlefield casualties. 

Two hundred thousand civilians are estimated to have died as a result of a combination of war-related famine, displacement, guerrilla activity and pestilence over the duration of the war.

A further fifty thousand are sent into indentured servitude in the West Indies.

Some historians estimate that as much as half of the pre-war population of Ireland may have died as a result of the conflict.

Northwest Europe (1588–1599 CE): Defeating the Armada, Continued Strife, and Flourishing Culture

England: Triumph over the Spanish Armada

The defining event of this era was the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, a pivotal naval engagement that affirmed England's growing maritime dominance. Commanded by leaders such as Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham (Lord Howard of Effingham) and Sir Francis Drake, the English fleet utilized strategic ingenuity, superior maneuverability, and adverse weather conditions (famously termed the "Protestant Wind") to thwart Spain’s invasion attempt. This victory boosted national pride, secured Protestantism in England, and marked the beginning of Spanish naval decline.

Queen Elizabeth I continued to face internal and external threats despite the Armada victory. Persistent Catholic plots remained a concern, and Elizabeth’s government responded with increased vigilance and repression. Nonetheless, Elizabeth maintained her delicate political balance, navigating religious and political divisions effectively.

Plague had remained present in England since the Black Death of the fourteenth century, occasionally transmitted from rodents to humans with disastrous consequences. The plague, erupting periodically throughout the sixteenth century, notably struck Newcastle in 1589, killing 1,727 residents by January 1590. From 1590 to 1592, Plymouth and Devon also suffered outbreaks, with significant fatalities in towns such as Totnes and Tiverton. The disease spread through the English countryside, eventually reaching London in the summer of 1592.

Scotland: Political Stability and Monarchical Authority

In Scotland, James VI consolidated his authority and began to actively govern, gradually reducing factional strife. His effective political maneuvering laid the foundations for greater stability, though tensions between the monarchy and the Kirk continued. James VI's writings, notably Basilikon Doron (1599), outlined his views on kingship, emphasizing the divine right of monarchs, and reflected his ambition to succeed Elizabeth I in England.

Ireland: Tyrone’s Rebellion

Ireland saw heightened resistance against English rule through Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, who launched Tyrone’s Rebellion (also known as the Nine Years' War) beginning in 1594. Tyrone united various Gaelic lords in a widespread and formidable revolt, successfully employing guerrilla tactics that initially challenged English military strength. This conflict became a significant drain on English resources, compelling Elizabeth to dispatch substantial military forces.

Scandinavia: Economic Stability and Lutheran Orthodoxy

Denmark-Norway under King Christian IV from 1588 experienced ongoing stability, economic prosperity, and cultural patronage. Christian IV’s reign, though initially overseen by a regency until he came of age in 1596, eventually became noted for promoting trade, enhancing Copenhagen's infrastructure, and reinforcing Lutheran orthodoxy.

Cultural Expansion and Literary Achievements

Elizabethan England continued to enjoy remarkable cultural and literary vitality. This era witnessed the flowering of William Shakespeare’s dramatic career, producing early masterpieces such as Romeo and Juliet (1595), A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1595–1596), and The Merchant of Venice (1596–1598). Shakespeare’s plays, performed at the Globe Theatre (opened in 1599), highlighted the depth and diversity of English culture and drama.

Maritime Expansion and Imperial Ambitions

English maritime expansion intensified, with notable voyages including expeditions by explorers such as Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh. Although Raleigh’s initial Roanoke Colony had failed, efforts to establish English colonies continued, paving the way for future colonial enterprises.

Legacy of the Era

By 1599 CE, Northwest Europe had witnessed decisive victories, ongoing conflicts, and significant cultural advancements. England emerged from the Armada’s defeat with enhanced national pride and maritime prestige, while Scotland moved towards greater internal stability. Ireland’s ongoing rebellion posed severe challenges to English rule, highlighting enduring tensions. Culturally, the period marked the height of Elizabethan literary and dramatic achievements, establishing a rich legacy for subsequent generations.

The powerful Ó Néill clan of Tyrone dominates the center of the northern province of Ulster; Conn Ó Neill the Lame had been the first Ó Neill be created Earl of Tyrone under English law.

Hugh Ó Neill, the son of Mathew of Dungannon, who was the son of Conn Ó Neill the Lame, had seen his father killed and had himself been banished from Ulster as a child by Seán 'An Díomais' Ó Néill.

Brought up by the Hovenden family in the Pale, he had been sponsored by the English authorities as a reliable lord.

He had in 1587 persuaded Queen Elizabeth to make him Earl of Tyrone (or Tir Eoghain), the English title his grandfather had held.

The real power in Ulster, however, lies not in the legal title of Earl of Tyrone, but in the position of The Ó Néill, or chief of the Ó Neill clan, held at this time by Turlough Luineach Ó Neill.

It is this position that commands the obedience of all the Ó Neills and their dependents in central Ulster.

His constant disputes with Turlough have been fomented by the English with a view to weakening the power of the O'Neills, but with the growing power of Hugh, the two come to some agreement in 1595 and Turlough abdicates.

Hugh is subsequently inaugurated as The O'Neill at Tullahogue in the style of the former Gaelic kings, and becomes the most powerful lord in Ulster.

The ambitions of this Gaelic Irish chieftain are at odds with those of the advance of the English state in Ireland, from control over the Pale to ruling the whole island.

In resisting this advance, Ó Neill has managed to rally other Irish septs who are dissatisfied with English government and some Catholics who oppose the spread of Protestantism in Ireland.

From Hugh Roe Ó Donnell, his ally, he has enlisted Scottish mercenaries (known as Redshanks).

Within his own territories, O'Neill is entitled to limited military service from his sub lords or uirithe.

He has also pressed his tenants and dependents into military service and tied the peasantry to the land in order to increase food production.

In addition, he has hired large contingents of Irish mercenaries known as buanadha under leaders such as Richard Tyrell.

To arm his soldiers, Ó Neill has bought muskets, ammunition and pikes from Scotland and England.

Ó Donnell, on Ó Neill’s behalf, has from 1591 been in contact with Philip II of Spain, appealing for military aid against their common enemy and citing also their shared Catholicism.

With the aid of Spain, Ó Neill has been able to arm and feed over eight thousand men, unprecedented for a Gaelic lord, and so is well prepared to resist any further English attempts to govern Ulster.

Norreys, having fallen foul of his French colleagues at the end of 1594, had returned from Brest.

He is in April 1595 selected as the military commander under the new lord deputy of Ireland, Sir William Russell.

The waspish Russell had been governor of Flushing, but the two men are on bad terms.

Sir Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, had wanted his men placed as Russell's subordinates, but Norreys rejects this and is issued with a special patent that makes him independent of the lord deputy's authority in Ulster.

It is expected that the terror of the reputation he has gained in combating the Spanish will be sufficient to cause the rebellion to collapse.

Norreys had arrived at Waterford in May 1595, but had been struck with malaria on disembarking.

He sets out in June from Dublin with twenty-nine hundred men and artillery, with Russell trailing him through Dundalk.

After flourishing his letters patent at Drogheda upon the proclamation of Hugh O'Neill, 3rd Earl of Tyrone, as a traitor, Norreys makes his headquarters at Newry and fortifies Armagh cathedral.

On learning that artillery is stored at Newry, Tyrone dismantles his stronghold of Dungannon castle and enters the field.

Norreys camps his troops along the River Blackwater, while Tyrone roams the far bank; a ford is secured but no crossing is attempted because there is no harvest to destroy and a tour within enemy territory would be futile.

English government in Ulster in the early 1590s has taken the form of a Provincial Presidency, headed by the colonist Sir Henry Bagenal who lives at Newry.

O'Neill had roused the ire of Bagenal in 1591 by eloping with his sister, Mabel, but in 1593 had showed his loyalty to the crown with his military support for his brother-in-law in the defeat of Hugh Maguire at Belleek.

After Mabel's death, O'Neill had gradually fallen into a barely concealed opposition to the crown and sought aid from Spain and Scotland.

The Nine Years War begins with a conflict over English efforts to maintain a string of garrisons along the southern border of Tyrone's territory in Ulster.

The Irish leader promptly besieges the English garrison at Monaghan castle, and Bagenal marches out to its relief on May 25 (June 4 New Style) from Dundalk, via Newry.

His army is made up of seventeen hundred and fifty troops, including some veterans and certain companies newly arrived from the Spanish campaign in Brittany, but there are many recruits in the ranks.

Bagenal's men are predominantly infantry, armed with muskets and pikes; there is also a small number of horsemen raised in the Pale.

The Battle of Clontibret is essentially a two day running fight, as Bagenal's column is ambushed on its way to and from Monaghan town.

It ends in victory for Tyrone, and is the first severe setback suffered by the English during the war.

Norreys refuses to assume full responsibility so long as Russell is with the army, which prompts the lord deputy to return to Dublin in July 1595, leaving his commander a free hand in the conquest of Ulster.

Norreys already has misgivings: he thinks the task impossible without reinforcements and accuses Russell of thwarting him and of concealing from the London government the imperfections of the army.

He informs the queen's secretary, Sir William Cecil, that the rebels are far superior in strength, arms and munitions to those previously encountered, and that the English need commensurate reinforcement.

So quickly does the situation deteriorate that Norreys declines to risk marching his troops ten miles through the Moyry Pass, from Newry to Dundalk, choosing instead to move them by sea, but in a blow to his reputation, Russell confounds him later that summer by brazenly marching up to the Blackwater with little difficulty.

More troops are shipped into Ireland, and the companies are ordered to take on twenty Irishmen apiece, which is admitted to be risky, but Norreys still complains that his units are made up of poor old plowmen and rogues.

Tyrone presents Norreys with his written submission, but this is rejected on the advice of the Dublin council, owing to Tyrone's demand for recognition of his local supremacy.

Norris cannot draw his enemy out and decides to winter at Armagh, which he revictuals in September 1595, but a second trip is necessary because of a lack of draft horses.

On the return march, while fortifying a pass between Newry and Armagh, Norreys is wounded in the arm and side (and his brother also) during an Irish attack at Markethill, where the enemy cavalry is noted to be more enterprising than had been expected. (Norreys had once commented that Irish cavalry was fit only to catch cows.)

The rebels had also attacked in the Moyry pass upon the army's first arrival but had been repelled.

Sir John Norreys, owing to troubles in the province of Connaught, arrives with Sir Geoffrey Fenton in June 1596 to parley with the local lords.

He censures the presidential government of Sir Richard Bingham for having stirred up the lords into rebellion—although the influence of Tyrone's ally, Hugh Roe O'Donnell, in this respect is also recognized, especially since Sligo castle had lately fallen to the rebels.

Bingham is suspended and detained in Dublin (he will later be detained in the Fleet in London).

During a campaign of six months, Norreys fails however to restore peace to Connaught, and, despite a nominal submission by the lords, hostilities beak out again in December 1596 as soon as he has returned north to Newry.

Heartily sick of his situation at this point, Norreys seeks to be recalled, citing poor health and the effect upon him of various controversies.

Russell, as usual, weighs in with criticism and claims that Norreys is feigning poor health in Athlone and seeking to have the lord deputy caught up in his failure.

An analysis of this situation in October 1596, which had been backed by the Earl of Essex, had it that Norreys' style was "to invite to dance and be merry upon false hopes of a hollow peace".

This approach is in such contrast to Russell's instincts that there is a risk of collapse in the Irish government.

It is decided in the end to remove both men from Ulster in late 1596, sending Russell back to England and Norreys to Munster.