Late Bronze Age I and II A (Near and Middle East)
Years: 1485BCE - 1342BCE
Related Events
Filter results
Showing 10 events out of 150 total
The Rise of Bronze Metallurgy and the Beginning of the Bronze Age (c. 2637 BCE)
The Bronze Age marks a transformative period in human technological and social development, characterized by the widespread use of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin typically mixed in a 10:1 ratio. This shift led to major advancements in toolmaking, weaponry, and ornamentation, gradually replacing stone tools and setting the stage for urbanization and state formation.
The Traditional Dating of the Bronze Age
- The beginning of the Bronze Age is traditionally dated to 2637 BCE, corresponding to the first year of the Chinese calendar.
- However, regional variations in bronze metallurgy suggest that bronze production emerged independently in different parts of the world at different times.
Key Developments During the Bronze Age
-
Metallurgical Innovation:
- The discovery of copper-tin alloying allowed for the creation of stronger, more durable tools and weapons.
- Bronze had a lower melting point than pure copper, making it easier to cast into complex shapes.
-
Widespread Use in Tools, Weapons, and Ornaments:
- Bronze swords, axes, and spearheads revolutionized warfare and hunting.
- Plows and agricultural tools improved farming efficiency, boosting food production.
- Jewelry and ceremonial artifacts became symbols of status and wealth.
-
Urbanization and the Growth of Early States:
- The development of metallurgy spurred trade networks, as tin and copper had to be sourced from different regions.
- Societies became more hierarchical, with metal production controlled by ruling elites and specialized artisans.
- The emergence of writing systems (e.g., Sumerian cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs) coincided with the growth of early civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, and China.
The Transition to the Iron Age
- The Bronze Age lasted for over seventeen centuries, until the rise of iron metallurgy, which gradually replaced bronze in toolmaking and warfare.
- Iron was more abundant than tin, making it a more sustainable and widely available material.
- The Iron Age ushered in new technological and military developments, further advancing human civilization.
The Bronze Age was a crucial turning point in prehistory, fostering technological progress, social complexity, and economic expansion, shaping the foundations of many early civilizations that would influence the course of human history.
-
The Near and Middle East (2637 – 910 BCE): Bronze and Early Iron — Empires, Incense, and the First Great Corridors
Regional Overview
During the Bronze and Early Iron Ages, the Near and Middle East stood at the center of Afro-Eurasian innovation.
From the Tigris–Euphrates to the Nile, from the Caucasus uplands to the Arabian Sea, irrigation, metallurgy, and overland and maritime trade linked highlands, deserts, and fertile deltas into a single interdependent world.
By the close of this epoch, the region had evolved into a mosaic of palace-states, caravan polities, and incense ports that prefigured the classical empires of the first millennium BCE.
Geography and Environment
The region spanned three great ecological belts:
-
the alluvial lowlands of Mesopotamia and Egypt,
-
the mountain and plateau arcs of Iran, Armenia, and Anatolia, and
-
the arid steppe and coastal deserts of Arabia and the Levant.
Rivers such as the Tigris, Euphrates, Nile, and Jordan supplied irrigation, while the Zagros and Caucasus offered pastures and metals.
The Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and eastern Mediterranean served as maritime corridors binding these lands into one economic sphere.
Climate and Environmental Shifts
Late-Holocene arid pulses intensified after 2000 BCE.
Mesopotamian salinization and river avulsion forced canal redirection and crop rotation, while the Caucasus and Zagros pastures remained comparatively stable.
Along the Red Sea and Arabian coasts, fog oases and mountain terraces mitigated drought.
This interplay of aridity and adaptation produced the region’s hallmark—hydraulic ingenuity.
Societies and Political Developments
In the Mesopotamian and Iranian highlands, Elamite, Susian, and Zagros polities balanced urban irrigation systems with pastoral hinterlands.
Metal-rich Transcaucasia (Trialeti, Kura–Araxes legacies) supplied arsenical bronzes and stimulated north-south trade.
By the late second millennium BCE, the foundations of Assyria, Urartu, and Syro-Anatolian kingdoms were emerging.
To the south and east, Southeast Arabia developed terraced oases in Hadhramaut and Dhofar, expanding goat-camel herding and pioneering the frankincense and myrrh trades.
Socotra’s resins and dried fish entered long-range exchange networks that reached the Gulf and the Red Sea.
In the Near East proper, the Nile and Aegean worlds intertwined.
Egypt’s New Kingdom power extended into the Levant, while Aegean mariners and Anatolian city-states (Minoan–Mycenaean, later Aeolian and Ionian) connected the Mediterranean coasts.
Tyre, within this subregion, grew into a Phoenician entrepôt, while western Arabia’s oases and Yemeni highlands cultivated incense gardens and terraced cereals—the first outlines of the later incense road.
Economy and Technology
Across the region, Bronze-Age craft economies reached maturity.
-
Bronze metallurgy dominated tools, weapons, and luxury goods; iron-smelting appeared near the end of the period in Anatolia and Iran.
-
Wheeled transport and pack-camels widened caravan trade.
-
Canal agriculture, terrace farming, and oasis irrigation supported dense populations.
-
Sewn-plank dhows and sail-rigged ships carried pearls, dates, metals, and incense along the Gulf and Red Sea.
The interplay of highland ores, lowland crops, and coastal markets created a vertically integrated economic web unmatched elsewhere in the ancient world.
Belief and Symbolism
Ritual and kingship centered on divine mediation of fertility and order.
Highland peoples carved rock reliefs and tended fire altars; Mesopotamian and Levantine cities built temple precinctsaligned with stars and rivers.
In Egypt, solar and funerary cults radiated outward; in Aegean Anatolia, maritime sanctuaries honored capes and storms; in Arabia, ancestor tombs and incense offerings sacralized the desert routes.
The region’s mythic imagination—of gods ruling sky, sun, and flood—underpinned later Zoroastrian, Hebrew, and Hellenic traditions.
Movement and Interaction Corridors
Trade and migration moved through a network of interlocking routes:
-
Overland Zagros–Tigris and Caucasus–Ararat–Urmia corridors moved metals and livestock.
-
The Royal Road precursors tied Susiana to Anatolia.
-
The Gulf and Red Sea coasts hosted pearl fishers, incense ports, and ferry routes linking Arabia, Egypt, and the Levant.
-
Nile–Aegean maritime lanes ferried copper, tin, and luxury goods.
Together these paths created the first durable framework of continental-scale commerce.
Environmental Adaptation and Resilience
Societies balanced extremes through ecological complementarity:
mountain pastures fed lowland markets; oases and terraces offset desert risk; multi-crop rotations and canal maintenance curbed salinity.
Pastoral mobility and diversified trade insulated economies from drought and political upheaval.
By coupling agriculture, herding, and commerce, the region sustained continuity through climatic and dynastic flux.
Regional Synthesis and Long-Term Significance
By 910 BCE, the Near and Middle East had matured into a highly interconnected world system.
Its urban irrigation states, steppe-oasis alliances, and maritime incense routes linked Africa, Asia, and Europe.
The technological and cultural legacies of this era—bronze metallurgy, writing, monumental architecture, and long-distance exchange—formed the enduring template for the imperial and religious civilizations that would dominate the first millennium BCE and beyond.
Middle East (2,637 – 910 BCE) Bronze and Early Iron — Highland–Oasis Symbiosis, Steppe Links
Climate & Environment
-
Aridity pulses increased; alluvial avulsion and salinization risks rose; Caucasus/Zagros pastures remained reliable.
Societies & Settlement
-
Elamite–Susiana sphere influenced Khuzestan; Zagros polities (Lullubi, Gutian forebears) persisted; northern Syrian/Cilician towns grew; Transcaucasian metal zones (Trialeti, Kura–Araxes legacies) supplied copper/arsenical bronzes.
-
Nomadic/pastoral networks (steppe links via Caspian–Caucasus) interacted with oases.
Technology
-
Bronze weaponry/tools; early iron appears by the end; wheeled transport; canalized agriculture scaling.
Corridors
-
Zagros–Tigris caravan lines; Caucasus–Ararat–Lake Urmia nodes; Gulf coasting (pearls, dates) with the Arabian littoral.
Symbolism
-
Highland rock reliefs; fire altars; ancestor cults; temple precincts in oases.
Adaptation
-
Highland–oasis complementarity (pasture vs. irrigation); distributed canal networks and multi-crop rotations resisted salinization.
Transition
By 910 BCE, the matrix exists for the Neo-Assyrian, Urartian, and Syro-Anatolian polities that will dominate early Iron Age corridors intersecting our region.
Mesopotamian ziggurats, faced with highly colored glazed bricks, became most refined, serving both as storehouses for grain and as platforms for astrological and astronomical observations.
The Assyrians in the north construct botanical gardens in the form of formal parks.
The cities of the Indus River Valley civilization begin to be constructed of regularly proportioned fire-baked bricks, utilizing such features as corbeled arches, at the beginning of the Late Bronze Ages, in the early eighteenth century BCE.
Southeast Arabia (2,637 – 910 BCE) Bronze and Early Iron — Incense, Pastures, and Canoe Hubs
Geographic and Environmental Context
Southeast Arabia covers the southern and eastern margins of the Arabian Peninsula:-
Eastern Yemen (Hadhramaut, eastern Aden interior, al-Mahra).
-
Southern Oman (Dhofar Highlands with the khareef monsoon, al-Wusta gravel plains, Sharqiyah Desert fringes).
-
The Empty Quarter (Rubʿ al-Khālī) margins in adjoining Saudi territory.
-
The offshore island of Socotra in the Arabian Sea.
-
Anchors: Wādī Ḥaḍramawt–Shibam–Tarim, Dhofar escarpments (Ẓafār/Al-Balīd, Mirbat), al-Mahra dunes, al-Wusta plains, Sharqiyah sands, Socotra’s Hagghier Mountains and dragon’s-blood groves.
-
Dhofar terraces, Hadhramaut wadis, Socotra.
Climate & Environmental Shifts
-
Increasing aridification; terraces and fog-belt stability buffered upland.
Subsistence & Settlement
-
Terrace horticulture of millet, dates, tubers; goat/camel pastoralism.
-
Resin harvesting expanded.
-
Maritime dried-fish economies.
Technology & Material Culture
-
Bronze tools; iron appears late.
-
Sewn-plank dhows; cisterns.
Movement & Interaction Corridors
-
Incense moved north to Yemen; Socotra resin/aloe exported; Gulf links.
Cultural & Symbolic Expressions
-
Ritual incense burning; ancestor tombs.
Environmental Adaptation & Resilience
-
Resilient trinity: terrace, herd, incense, fish.
Transition
By 910 BCE, incense trade tied Southeast Arabia to broader West Asian exchange.
Near East (2,637 – 910 BCE) Bronze and Early Iron — Delta Kingdoms, Aegean City-Coasts, Arabian Caravan Seeds
Geographic and Environmental Context
The Near East includes Egypt, Sudan, Israel, most of Jordan, western Saudi Arabia, western Yemen, southwestern Cyprus, and western Turkey (Aeolis, Ionia, Doris, Lydia, Caria, Lycia, Troas) plus Tyre (extreme SW Lebanon).-
Anchors: the Nile Valley and Delta; Sinai–Negev–Arabah; the southern Levant (with Tyre as the sole Levantine node in this subregion); Hejaz–Asir–Tihāma on the Red Sea; Yemen’s western uplands/coast; southwestern Cyprus; western Anatolian littoral (Smyrna–Ephesus–Miletus–Halicarnassus–Xanthos; Troad).
Climate & Environment
-
Nile floods oscillated; Aegean coastal plains fertile; Arabian west slope aridity increased, highland terraces scaled slowly.
Societies & Settlement
-
Lower/Upper Egypt (full Pharaonic cores just south but contiguous influence); Aegean Anatolia (Minoan/Mycenaean interactions; later Aeolian/Ionian/Dorian successors).
-
Levantine Tyre (within this subregion) arose as Phoenician node; Arabian west oases supported caravan precursors; Yemen west highlands nurtured terrace farming and incense beginnings.
Technology
-
Bronze widespread; early iron in Anatolia/Levant; sail-powered shipping matured; terracing and cisterns in Hejaz–Yemen highlands.
Corridors
-
Nile–Delta–Aegean maritime bridge; Tyre connected to Cyprus/Anatolia; Red Sea coastal cabotage began; Incense path seeds in Yemen–Hejaz.
Symbolism
-
Egyptian temple cosmology radiated north; Aegean cults at capes; Tyrian Melqart/Asherah; Arabian highland local cults.
Adaptation
-
Floodplain–coastal–terrace redundancy stabilized economies; incense gardens hedged aridity.
Western Southeast Europe (2,637 – 910 BCE) Bronze and Early Iron — Cetina Maritime, Vučedol, and Illyrian/Dalmatian Horizons
Geographic and Environmental Context
Western Southeast Europe includes Greece (outside Thrace), Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Kosovo, most of Bosnia, southwestern Serbia, most of Croatia, and Slovenia.-
Anchors: Cetina maritime culture (Adriatic), Vučedol (Sirmium–Vukovar), Glasinac (Bosnia), Iapodes/Liburnians (northern Dalmatia/Istria), Pannonian plains.
Climate & Environmental Shifts
-
Variable rainfall; river avulsions; good pastures in uplands/forelands.
Subsistence & Settlement
-
Vučedol metallurgists (c. 3000–2200 BCE) on Sava–Danube; Cetina seafarers exploited maritime routes; Illyrian tribal formations emerged (Glasinac plateaus).
-
Mixed farming, herding, and maritime economies.
Technology & Material Culture
-
Bronze swords, sickles, ornaments; Vučedol ceramics; Illyrian helmets and gear late; early iron by 1st millennium BCE.
-
Coastal shipbuilding traditions matured.
Movement & Interaction Corridors
-
Adriatic cabotage tied Istria–Dalmatia–Ionian; Sava–Drava moved metals and grain; Vardar–Morava linked Aegean/central Balkans.
Cultural & Symbolic Expressions
-
Tumuli and warrior graves; hillfort sanctuaries; maritime cults along capes.
Environmental Adaptation & Resilience
-
Agro-pastoral and maritime redundancy buffered droughts/floods; hillforts provided refuge.
It will last for more than a millennium, from the fifteenth century BCE until the Roman conquest in the third century BCE.
It takes its name from the fortified boroughs (castellieri, Friulian cjastelir) that characterize the culture.
The ethnicity of the Castellieri civilization is uncertain, although it is most likely of Pre-Indoeuropean stock, coming from the sea.
The first castellieri are indeed built along the Istrian coasts and present the same Megalithic appearance characterizing in the Mycenaean civilization at the time.
Hypotheses about an Illyrian origin of the people are not confirmed.
The Castellieri are fortified boroughs, usually located on hills or mountains or, more rarely (such as in Friuli), in plains.
They are constituted by one or more concentric series of walls, of rounded or elliptical shape in Istria and Venezia Giulia, or quadrangular in Friuli, within which is the inhabited area.
Some hundreds of castellieri have been discovered in Istria, Friuli and Venezia Giulia, such as that of Leme, in central-western Istria, of the Jelarji, near Muggia, of Monte Giove near Prosecco (Trieste) and San Polo, not far from Monfalcone.
However, the largest castelliere is perhaps that of Nesactium, in southern Istria, not far from Pula.
These civilizations posses writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek.
The Mycenaeans gradually absorb the Minoans, but collapse violently around 1200 BCE, during a time of regional upheaval known as the Bronze Age collapse.
This ushers in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent.
"If you would understand anything, observe its beginning and its development."
— Aristotle, Politics, Book I, Chapter 2