Near East (909 BCE – 819 CE) Early Iron and Antiquity — Greeks of Ionia, Levantine Tyre, Roman–Byzantine Egypt, Arabia’s Caravans

Geographic and Environmental Context

• Anchors: the Nile Valley and Delta; Sinai–Negev–Arabah; the southern Levant (with Tyre as the sole Levantine node in this subregion); Hejaz–Asir–Tihāma on the Red Sea; Yemen’s western uplands/coast; southwestern Cyprus; western Anatolian littoral (Smyrna–Ephesus–Miletus–Halicarnassus–Xanthos; Troad).

Climate & Environment

• Nile’s late antique variability; Aegean storms seasonal; Arabian aridity persistent but terraces/cisterns mitigated.

Societies & Political Developments

• Western Anatolia Greek city-states (Ionia–Aeolia–Doria, with Troad): Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna, etc.

• Tyre (sole Near-Eastern Levantine node here) dominated Phoenician seafaring.

• Egypt (Ptolemaic → Roman → Byzantine): Nile granary and Christianizing hub.

• Arabian west: caravan kingdoms and Hejaz–Asir oases; western Yemen incense terraces and caravan polities.

• Southwestern Cyprus embedded in Hellenistic–Roman maritime circuits.

Economy & Trade

• Grain–papyrus–linen from the Nile; olive–wine Aegean; incense–myrrh from Yemen; Red Sea lanes linked to Aden–Berenike nodes (outside core but connected).

• Tyre exported craft goods and purple dye.

Technology & Material Culture

• Iron agriculture and tools; triremes and merchant galleys; advanced terracing, cisterns; lighthouse/harbor works.

Belief & Symbolism

• Egyptian polytheism → Christianity (Alexandria); Greek civic cults; Tyrian traditions; Arabian deities; monasticism along Nile/Desert.

Adaptation & Resilience

• Canal maintenance buffered Nile shocks; terraces/cisterns stabilized Arabian farming; Aegean coastal redundancy protected shipping routes.

Transition

By 819 CE, the Near East was a multi-corridor world of Nile granaries, Ionia’s city-coasts, Tyre’s Phoenician legacy, and Arabian incense roads — a foundation for the medieval dynamics ahead (Ayyubids in Syria/Egypt next door, Abbasids beyond, and the Ionian–Anatolian littoral under Byzantine/Nicaean arcs).

The Jewish Diaspora, which had begun with the Babylonian captivity in the sixth century BCE, and which had resumed early in the Hellenistic period, now involves most Jews in an exodus from what they continue to view as the land promised to them as the descendants of Abraham.

Following the destruction of the Temple in 70, and especially after the suppression of the Bar-Kochba Rebellion in 135, religio-nationalist aspects of Judaism are supplanted by a growing intellectual- spiritual trend.

Lacking a state, the survival of the Jewish people is dependent on study and observance of the written law, the Torah.

To maintain the integrity and cohesiveness of the community, the Torah is enlarged into a coherent system of moral theology and community law.

The rabbi and the synagogue become the normative institutions of Judaism, which hereafter is essentially a congregationalist faith.

Jewish Revolts and the Dispersal of Jewish Communities (2nd Century CE)

The second century CE saw a series of devastating Jewish revolts that disrupted the Pax Romana, leading to widespread destruction, mass displacement, and the expulsion of Jews from many parts of the eastern Mediterranean, including most of Palestine. These revolts significantly altered the Jewish diaspora, leading to the further dispersion of Jewish communities across the Roman Empire and beyond.

Major Jewish Revolts of the 2nd Century CE

1. The Kitos War (115–117 CE)

   • A widespread Jewish uprising broke out across Cyrene, Egypt, Cyprus, and Mesopotamia.
   • The rebellion was brutally suppressed by Roman forces, leading to massacres and forced displacements.
   • Jews were expelled from Cyprus, and their communities in North Africa and the Levant were significantly weakened.

2. The Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–136 CE)

   • The most significant of the Jewish uprisings, led by Simon bar Kokhba, against the rule of Emperor Hadrian.
   • The revolt was sparked by Hadrian’s policies, including the banning of Jewish religious practices and the establishment of a Roman colony (Aelia Capitolina) on the ruins of Jerusalem.
   • Roman forces, under General Julius Severus, responded with overwhelming force, killing hundreds of thousands of Jews.
   • Judea was devastated, its population decimated, and Jewish settlements were razed.
   • The province of Judea was renamed "Syria Palaestina", a deliberate move to erase Jewish identity from the region.

The Jewish Diaspora and New Centers of Jewish Life

Following these revolts, Jews were forcibly expelled or fled to various regions, leading to the growth of Jewish communities elsewhere:

• Arabia – Jewish settlements expanded in Yemen, Hejaz, and other parts of the Arabian Peninsula, influencing pre-Islamic Arabia.
• Georgia – Jewish communities took root in the Caucasus, where they became a recognized minority.
• Crimea – Some Jews settled in the Black Sea region, contributing to the early Jewish-Khazar connections.
• Italy, Gaul, and Spain – The Western Roman Empire saw an increase in Jewish migration, leading to early Jewish communities in Rome, southern France, and the Iberian Peninsula.

Consequences and Legacy

• The failure of the Jewish revolts led to severe Roman repression, permanently altering Jewish demographics and cultural identity.
• The diaspora expanded, leading to the establishment of Jewish centers outside of Palestine that would remain influential for centuries.
• The Romanization of Judea (renamed Syria Palaestina) marked the final stage of Jewish loss of sovereignty until the modern era.

The Jewish revolts of the 2nd century CE fundamentally reshaped Jewish history, transforming a once-centralized people into a widespread and enduring diaspora, influencing global Jewish culture for millennia.

Emperor Hadrian (117-38) endeavors to establish cultural uniformity and issues several repressive edicts, including one against circumcision.

The edicts spark the Bar-Kochba Rebellion of 132-35, which is crushed by the Romans.

Hadrian closes the Academy at Yibna, and prohibits both the study of the Torah and the observance of the Jewish way of life derived from it.

Judah is included in Syria Palestina, Jerusalem is renamed Aelia Capitolina, and Jews are forbidden to come within sight of the city.

Once a year on the anniversary of the destruction of the Temple, controlled entry is permitted, allowing Jews to mourn at a remaining fragment on the Temple site, the Western Wall, which becomes known as the Wailing Wall.

Cyrenaica under the Ptolemies had become the home of a large Jewish community, whose numbers were substantially increased by tens of thousands of Jews deported there after the failure of the rebellion against Roman rule in Palestine and the destruction of Jerusalem in CE 70.

Some of the refugees made their way into the desert, where they became nomads and nurtured their fierce hatred of Rome.

They have converted to Judaism many of the Berbers with whom they mingle, and in some cases whole tribes re identified as Jewish.

In 115 the Jews raise a major revolt in Cyrenaica that quickly spreads through Egypt back to Palestine.

The uprising is put down by 118, but only after Jewish insurgents have laid waste to Cyrenaica and sacked the city of Cyrene.

Contemporary observers count the loss of life during those years at more than two hundred thousand, and at least a century will be required to restore Cyrenaica to the order and prosperity that had meanwhile prevailed in Tripolitania.

The Middle East: 112–123 CE

The Second Jewish Revolt and Imperial Turmoil

This era witnesses a significant wave of unrest across the eastern Roman Empire, most dramatically manifested in the Second Jewish Revolt (also known as the Kitos War, 115–117 CE). Sparked by longstanding religious tensions, social unrest, and Roman administrative practices, the revolt erupts violently in regions densely populated by Jews, rapidly engulfing provinces such as Cyrenaica, Alexandria, Judea, Mesopotamia, and Cyprus.

The uprising coincides with the final years of Emperor Trajan and the beginning of Hadrian’s reign, representing one of the bloodiest chapters in Roman–Jewish relations. Initially successful, Jewish rebels unleash devastating attacks, resulting in the slaughter of hundreds of thousands of Greek and Roman citizens. Cities across the eastern Mediterranean, notably Cyrene, Alexandria, and Salamis on Cyprus, suffer catastrophic damage, profoundly destabilizing these once-prosperous urban centers.

Roman retribution is swift and brutal. Under Trajan’s orders and later continued by Hadrian, imperial forces systematically suppress the revolt, killing hundreds of thousands of Jews in reciprocal violence. The devastation significantly alters the demographics and cultural landscapes of affected areas, notably on Cyprus, where Jewish settlement is virtually eradicated, and subsequent restrictions severely limit Jewish presence for generations.

The failure of the revolt also reshapes Rome’s eastern policies, prompting Hadrian to adopt a more cautious administrative and military stance. This recalibration contributes to his later decisions to consolidate rather than expand Rome’s eastern territories, marking a clear departure from Trajan’s expansive ambitions.

Thus, the tumultuous events of 112–123 CE significantly impact Roman–Jewish relations, profoundly affecting the socio-political fabric of the eastern Roman provinces, and influencing imperial policies for decades to come.

The second Jewish revolt, which spans the end of Trajan’s reign and the beginning of Hadrian’s, is a two-year conflict in which hundreds of thousands of Greek and Roman citizens are slaughtered in Cyrenaica, Alexandria, Judea, Mesopotamia, and Cyprus, soon followed by the reciprocal slaughter of hundreds of thousands of Jews.

Near East (112–123 CE): Second Jewish Revolt, Roman Repression, and Religious Identity

This era is notably marked by the Second Jewish Revolt, also known as the Kitos War (115–117 CE), which erupts across Jewish communities within the Roman Empire, particularly in Cyrene (Libya), Egypt, Cyprus, and Mesopotamia. Driven by tensions rooted in Roman oppression, religious conflict, and socioeconomic grievances, widespread violence leads to heavy casualties on both sides.

The Roman response under Emperor Trajan is swift and ruthless. Roman forces brutally suppress the revolts, resulting in catastrophic destruction in Jewish population centers. Alexandria sees violent pogroms, and the significant Jewish presence in Cyprus is effectively eradicated, with survivors forbidden to resettle there under penalty of death.

Concurrently, Christianity continues to spread steadily despite these tumultuous events, carefully navigating the volatile landscape shaped by Jewish unrest and Roman suspicion. The movement increasingly defines its theological and communal identity separately from Judaism, creating a more distinctively Gentile-Christian profile.

In Judea, Pharisaic leadership intensifies efforts to stabilize Jewish communities, emphasizing adherence to rabbinical teachings and reinforcing the spiritual and social cohesion necessary to endure Roman oppression. The redaction of traditions that will later become part of the Mishnah proceeds despite political instability.

Legacy of the Era

The years 112–123 CE profoundly reshape Jewish life in the Near East, with devastating human and cultural losses due to the Second Jewish Revolt and its harsh Roman suppression. Meanwhile, the resilience of Judaism and the growing independence of Christianity lay essential foundations for religious identities in the region, deeply influencing future historical developments.

North Africa (112–123 CE)

Roman Provincial Consolidation, Urban Prosperity, and Continued Saharan Connectivity

Roman Administration and Economic Stability

From 112 to 123 CE, Roman governance in Africa Proconsularis further consolidates, maintaining regional stability and economic integration through continued investments in infrastructure, agricultural expansion, and urban development. Major urban centers, such as Utica, Leptis Magna, and Caesarea (Cherchell), continue to thrive, significantly contributing to Rome’s broader Mediterranean economic and administrative network.

Numidia: Sustained Economic Growth and Cultural Integration

Numidia experiences ongoing economic growth under stable Roman provincial governance. Agricultural productivity remains robust, supported by enhanced trade networks and infrastructure projects. Numidian communities successfully integrate traditional cultural practices within the Roman administrative framework, preserving their identity while reinforcing regional cohesion and stability.

Mauretania: Economic Prosperity and Cultural Continuity

Mauretania continues to flourish economically and culturally. The city of Caesarea sustains its prominence as an influential economic hub, benefiting from substantial trade in grain, olive oil, and luxury goods. Ongoing infrastructure developments facilitate increased commerce and cultural exchange, reinforcing Mauretania’s pivotal role in Roman North Africa.

Cyrenaica: Economic Prosperity Marred by Violent Conflict

Cyrenaica, despite sustained economic prosperity and intellectual prominence, experiences severe turmoil due to the outbreak of the second Jewish revolt. Spanning the end of Trajan’s reign and the beginning of Hadrian’s (115–117 CE), the conflict devastates the region. Hundreds of thousands of Greek and Roman citizens are slaughtered in Cyrenaica, as well as in Alexandria, Judea, Mesopotamia, and Cyprus. This violence triggers retaliatory massacres, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Jews. Despite this upheaval, Cyrene and the other cities of the Greek Pentapolis—Barce (Al Marj), Euhesperides (Benghazi), Teuchira (Tukrah), and Apollonia (Susah)—manage to slowly recover, maintaining their economic roles in grain, wine, wool, and livestock, and gradually regaining intellectual and cultural stability.

Berber Communities: Economic Engagement and Cultural Resilience

Berber populations persist in their significant economic roles, particularly through coastal trade hubs such as Oea (Tripoli). Inland Berber tribes uphold traditional governance and cultural practices, benefiting from sustained economic relationships with coastal markets. This enduring interaction supports economic stability and cultural resilience throughout the region.

Garamantes: Key Saharan Trade Facilitators

The Garamantes maintain their critical role in managing trans-Saharan commerce, effectively linking sub-Saharan Africa with Mediterranean economies. Their sophisticated agricultural techniques and effective management of caravan routes ensure ongoing regional prosperity and robust economic exchanges.

Mauri (Moors) and Saharan Pastoral Nomads

The Mauri (Moors) uphold their regional influence through active diplomatic relations and robust economic activities, ensuring ongoing stability and prosperity in western North Africa.

Saharan pastoral nomads persist as crucial facilitators of trade, cultural exchanges, and information dissemination across diverse ecological and economic regions, reinforcing North Africa’s interconnected societies.

Cultural Syncretism and Integration

Continuous interactions among Berber, Roman, Greek, Garamantian, Musulami, Gaetulian, Mauri, and Saharan pastoral communities enrich regional cultural traditions in arts, crafts, and religious practices. Religious syncretism remains vibrant, blending indigenous Berber beliefs harmoniously with Roman, Greek, Phoenician, and Saharan spiritual customs, significantly enhancing North Africa’s cultural diversity.

Foundations of Stability Amidst Challenges

By 123 CE, North Africa sustains robust economic stability and regional prosperity despite significant challenges, notably the second Jewish revolt’s impact on Cyrenaica. Under effective Roman provincial administration, ongoing urban development, resilient Berber communities, and vibrant Saharan trade networks, North Africa continues to reinforce its enduring strategic importance within the Mediterranean geopolitical context.

Trajan commands the eastern campaign against the Parthian Empire in 115.

The invasion has been prompted by the imposition of a pro-Parthian king on the throne of Armenia after a Parthian invasion of that land, over which the two empires had shared hegemony since the time of Nero some fifty years earlier.

Trajan's army advances victoriously through Mesopotamia, while Jewish rebels in its rear begin attacking the small garrisons left behind.

A revolt in far-off Cyrenaica soon spreads to Egypt and then Cyprus, inciting revolt in Judaea.

A widespread uprising centered at Lydda threatens grain supplies from Egypt to the front.

The Jewish insurrection swiftly spreads to the recently conquered provinces.

Cities with substantial Jewish populations—Nisibis, Edessa, Seleucia, Arbela—join the rebellion and slaughter their small Roman garrisons.