North Africa (1828–1971 CE): Colonial Rule, Anticolonial Resistance, and National Independence

Geographic & Environmental Context

The subregion of North Africa includes Morocco (with the Western Sahara), Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. Anchors included the Atlas Mountains, the Tell plains, the Western Sahara desert corridor (later Spanish Sahara, with Río de Oro and Saguia el-Hamra), the Saharan oases, and the Mediterranean ports of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Casablanca, and Tangier. From fertile valleys to arid desert, the region’s environments were reshaped by European conquest, settler colonization, and the struggles for independence.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The 19th century saw cycles of drought and famine across the Maghreb, devastating rural populations in Algeria and Morocco. Locust swarms exacerbated hardship. In the 20th century, irrigation projects and colonial plantations transformed the Tell and oases, while mechanized drilling extended wells into the Western Sahara. By mid-century, desertification intensified, placing stress on nomadic pastoralists.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Algeria: Invaded by France in 1830, Algeria became a settler colony. Vineyards, wheat fields, and citrus groves expanded, while Indigenous communities lost land through confiscation. Rural revolts erupted, most famously under Abdelkader (1832–1847).

• Tunisia: Declared a French protectorate in 1881. Olive cultivation and grain exports were commercialized; Tunis and Sfax grew as administrative and commercial centers.

• Morocco: The Alaouite dynasty endured until the French and Spanish protectorates were imposed in 1912, with Tangier as an international zone. Rural tribes and the Rif War (1921–1926) challenged European control.

• Libya: Conquered by Italy in 1911 from the Ottomans. Settlers colonized Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, facing fierce resistance from the Sanusi order under Omar Mukhtar (1923–1931) until his capture and execution.

• Western Sahara: Formally annexed as Spanish Sahara (1884), divided into Río de Oro and Saguia el-Hamra.Spanish rule was consolidated in the 20th century with coastal outposts at Villa Cisneros (Dakhla) and La Güera. Phosphate deposits at Bou Craa (discovered 1947) became central to Spain’s colonial interests.

Technology & Material Culture

Colonial regimes built railways, ports, and roads to export grain, oil, wine, phosphates, and petroleum. European-style cities rose alongside Indigenous medinas. Mosques, zawiyas, and Sufi shrines remained cultural anchors. In Libya and Algeria, resistance fighters wielded rifles and guerrilla tactics. In Morocco and the Western Sahara, nomads sustained camel caravans, tents, and oral poetry while gradually adapting to modern arms and vehicles introduced in mid-century.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Saharan caravans dwindled as steamships and railroads dominated trade, though camel routes persisted into the 20th century.

• Colonial export networks: Algeria’s wine and wheat fed French markets; Tunisia exported olives and phosphates; Morocco exported citrus, leather, and phosphates.

• Western Sahara: Connected to the Canary Islands and Spain by shipping routes; nomadic Sahrawis crossed borders with Mauritania and Morocco.

• Migration: Thousands of Algerians, Moroccans, and Tunisians migrated to France as laborers during both World Wars and afterward.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

Islam remained the core of identity, reinforced through the Sanusi order in Libya, reformist ulama in Algeria, and Sufi brotherhoods across Morocco and Tunisia. Oral poetry and tribal traditions preserved Saharan identity. Colonial regimes sponsored European schools, churches, and cultural institutions, but local resistance emphasized Arabic language, Islamic law, and national symbols. Postwar nationalism produced flags, anthems, and revolutionary heroes, linking independence to cultural revival.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Villages intercropped cereals and legumes to survive drought. Nomadic tribes in the Sahara adjusted grazing routes and relied on kinship networks. During famines, zawiyas and religious waqf lands distributed food aid. Resistance fighters exploited deserts and mountains as refuges against colonial armies. In the 20th century, conservation of oases and state irrigation schemes aimed to stabilize fragile ecosystems, though often at high social cost.

Transition

By 1971 CE, North Africa had undergone sweeping transformation:

• Algeria achieved independence in 1962 after a bloody war led by the FLN.

• Tunisia became independent in 1956 under Habib Bourguiba.

• Morocco regained independence in 1956 under Mohammed V and Hassan II.

• Libya became independent in 1951 under King Idris; a 1969 coup brought Muammar Gaddafi to power.

• Western Sahara remained under Spanish control as Spanish Sahara, its Sahrawi population marginalized even as Bou Craa phosphate mines and fisheries drew colonial investment.

North Africa, long a crossroads of Saharan caravans and Mediterranean seaports, entered the modern era with its states independent and assertive—except for the Western Sahara, where the unfinished struggle for decolonization would soon ignite.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1900–1911 CE): Colonial Ambitions, Social Tensions, and Cultural Renewal

The period from 1900 to 1911 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe—encompassing the Italian Peninsula, southern and eastern Spain, southern Portugal, Andorra, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta—is marked by Italy’s continued colonial pursuits, Spain’s internal political struggles and regeneration efforts, Andorra’s cultural strengthening, and Malta’s stable yet complex colonial experience.

Italy: Continued Colonial Expansion and Industrial Growth

Italy, having recently consolidated its colonial presence in Africa, continues to strengthen its hold on territories such as Eritrea, Somalia, and the newly unified colony of Libya (comprising Tripolitania and Cyrenaica after the Italo-Turkish War of 1911). The nation actively seeks greater international prestige through these colonial ventures, which also serve as a means to divert domestic attention from economic and social challenges at home. Simultaneously, northern Italy experiences significant industrial expansion, deepening the economic divide with the underdeveloped rural south, fueling internal migration and emigration abroad.

Spain: Political Instability and the Quest for Renewal

Following the traumatic defeat in the Spanish-American War, Spain enters the twentieth century facing deep political instability, economic stagnation, and societal introspection. The parliamentary system established during the Bourbon Restoration struggles under the weight of its artificial two-party dynamic and widespread corruption. Increasing social unrest and demands for reform become more pronounced, culminating in urban protests and rural discontent. Intellectuals, continuing the reflective legacy of the "Generation of 1898," promote regenerationist ideals, advocating profound cultural and political changes to reinvigorate Spanish society.

Andorra: National Consciousness and Cultural Affirmation

Andorra actively participates in the broader Catalan cultural renaissance (Renaixença), strengthening its Catalan identity through education, literature, and artistic expression. The principality witnesses a steady cultural awakening, propelled by local intellectuals and literary figures who emphasize Andorran distinctiveness and heritage. While political tensions from the previous century gradually ease, debates persist regarding foreign economic influences, particularly around tourism and gambling, reflecting a society cautiously navigating modernity.

Malta: Stable Administration and Emerging National Identity

Under stable British colonial administration, Malta experiences steady economic and infrastructural improvements, particularly benefiting from its strategic importance within the British Empire. Despite the apparent stability, tensions surface around linguistic and educational policies, as Maltese national identity gradually asserts itself against the backdrop of British imperial dominance. Maltese society, though generally prosperous, increasingly engages in debates about autonomy, cultural preservation, and political self-determination.

Conclusion: Striving for Stability and Identity

From 1900 to 1911, Mediterranean Southwest Europe is a region of contrasts—Italy pushes its colonial ambitions abroad, Spain faces internal crises and intellectual challenges, Andorra consolidates its national culture, and Malta experiences relative prosperity under colonial rule but with emerging aspirations for autonomy. These diverse trajectories illustrate a region actively redefining itself amidst global changes, setting the stage for further transformations in the approaching decades.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1912–1923 CE): War, Crisis, and National Transformation

The era from 1912 to 1923 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe—encompassing the Italian Peninsula, southern and eastern Spain, southern Portugal, Andorra, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta—is profoundly shaped by the turmoil of World War I, post-war economic and social upheaval, the rise of authoritarian movements, and evolving cultural identities.

Italy: World War I, Post-War Turmoil, and Rise of Fascism

Italy enters World War I (1915–1918) on the side of the Entente Powers, driven by promises of territorial gains from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Despite eventual victory, Italy's post-war period is marked by profound disillusionment, economic hardship, and social unrest. Disappointed by the modest territorial rewards granted at the Treaty of Versailles, Italian nationalists condemn this "mutilated victory," fueling widespread resentment.

The resultant instability provides fertile ground for radical ideologies. In 1919, Benito Mussolini founds the Fascist Party, rapidly gaining popularity by exploiting national grievances and promising order, economic revival, and renewed national prestige. Mussolini's March on Rome in October 1922 culminates in King Victor Emmanuel III appointing him Prime Minister, marking the start of authoritarian rule in Italy.

Spain: Neutrality and Deepening Internal Struggles

During World War I, Spain remains neutral, benefiting economically by supplying wartime Europe but exacerbating social disparities domestically. The profits from neutrality fuel industrial and financial growth, particularly in urban centers like Barcelona and Madrid, yet simultaneously deepen social tensions between the working class and the ruling elites.

Post-war Spain is characterized by escalating social conflicts, anarchist activism, regionalist movements, and frequent governmental instability. The deepening crisis ultimately prompts a military coup led by General Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1923, who establishes a military dictatorship promising to restore order and stability, suppressing parliamentary politics and regional autonomy movements.

Andorra: Continued Cultural Growth and Political Stability

Andorra continues its gradual cultural and social modernization, largely insulated from the upheavals impacting larger neighbors. The principality's participation in the Catalan Renaixença remains robust, strengthening its distinct Catalan identity through education and cultural institutions. Politically stable, Andorra maintains its traditional dual sovereignty between the French President and the Bishop of Urgell, successfully balancing tradition and modernity during this tumultuous period.

Malta: Strategic Importance and Emerging Nationalism

As a critical naval base within the British Empire during World War I, Malta experiences substantial economic benefit and infrastructural improvements due to increased British military presence. Yet, the war's aftermath sees growing nationalist sentiments and demands for greater political autonomy. Political organizations advocating Maltese self-government gain traction, highlighting emerging tensions between the island’s colonial dependence and aspirations for self-determination.

Conclusion: Transition and Authoritarianism

From 1912 to 1923, Mediterranean Southwest Europe undergoes dramatic transformations—Italy experiences the trauma of war followed by the establishment of fascism, Spain plunges deeper into political instability leading to dictatorship, while Andorra and Malta each navigate their paths through cultural reaffirmation and political evolution. This era sets the stage for significant geopolitical and social changes in subsequent decades, deeply influencing regional and global history.

North Africa (1912–1923 CE)

Consolidation of Colonial Dominance and Rise of Nationalist Resistance

The era from 1912 to 1923 in North Africa witnesses intensified European colonial control and significant local responses, marked by growing nationalist movements and heightened socio-political transformations across Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Morocco.

Algeria: Entrenchment of French Rule and Emerging Resistance

In Algeria, French colonial policies deepen their grip, driven by the interests of the European settler population (colons). Indigenous Algerians experience further land seizures and economic disenfranchisement, exacerbating rural poverty and urban overcrowding. Algerian Muslims remain severely underrepresented in political institutions, their rights significantly curtailed by the French administration.

Despite continued resistance and increasing nationalist sentiment, organized opposition is fragmented. However, the groundwork for future nationalist movements is laid during this period, particularly among the growing educated elite who begin articulating political and social reforms.

Tunisia: Institutionalization of Colonial Control and Early Nationalist Activity

Tunisia solidifies as a French protectorate, its administrative and economic policies firmly subordinated to French interests. The role of the Tunisian Bey and local elites continues to be marginalized, fueling resentment among the indigenous population. Economic exploitation by French enterprises heightens socioeconomic disparities, spurring increased nationalist awareness and grassroots organization among Tunisians.

Emerging nationalist leaders begin advocating for reforms and greater political participation, setting the stage for the organized resistance movements that will significantly impact Tunisian political life in subsequent decades.

Libya: Sanusi Resistance and Italian Occupation

Libya experiences significant upheaval as Italy initiates a military invasion in 1911, formally establishing its colonial rule in 1912 after overcoming fierce resistance. The Sanusi Order, already influential under the leadership of Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Sanusi, becomes a central force in the anti-colonial resistance. Following the Mahdi’s death in 1902, his successor, Ahmed Sharif as-Sanusi, and later Omar al-Mukhtar, intensify the jihad against Italian forces.

Despite brutal Italian military campaigns and oppressive tactics, the Sanusi-led resistance remains resilient, particularly in Cyrenaica, where the Sanusis maintain substantial territorial control and widespread tribal allegiance. This persistent resistance foreshadows ongoing conflict and anti-colonial struggles in the decades to follow.

Morocco: Establishment of French and Spanish Protectorates

Morocco's sovereignty is significantly undermined as it is formally divided into French and Spanish protectorates in 1912, following the Treaty of Fez. The French protectorate, controlling the majority of the country, implements extensive colonial reforms designed to benefit French settlers and economic interests. Sultan Moulay Abd al-Hafid, facing overwhelming pressure, abdicates, and the new Sultan, Moulay Youssef, assumes a largely ceremonial role under French supervision.

The Spanish protectorate in northern Morocco faces fierce resistance, notably during the Rif War (1921–1926), led by Abd el-Krim, who successfully mobilizes tribal forces against Spanish occupation, achieving significant military victories and establishing the short-lived Republic of the Rif. His resistance gains international attention and significantly inspires anti-colonial sentiment throughout North Africa.

Socioeconomic Impacts and Nationalist Awakening

Across North Africa, the socioeconomic impacts of colonial policies intensify. Indigenous populations increasingly suffer from economic disenfranchisement and marginalization, prompting growing urban poverty and rural displacement. These pressures catalyze a more profound nationalist awakening, as educated elites and grassroots activists advocate political and social reforms, calling for independence and self-determination.

By 1923, North Africa stands at a critical juncture. Entrenched colonial structures face mounting local resistance, and nationalist movements lay the foundation for sustained anti-colonial struggles that will shape the region's political future profoundly.