Northwest Europe (1468–1479 CE): Dynastic Turmoil and Cultural Renaissance

England: Wars of the Roses and Royal Turmoil

The Wars of the Roses escalated dramatically, driven by shifting allegiances and intermittent conflict. Initially secure, King Edward IV faced substantial setbacks, notably losing his throne briefly in 1470 due to the Lancastrian resurgence orchestrated by Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, famously known as the "Kingmaker." Warwick temporarily restored the Lancastrian monarch Henry VI, but Edward IV decisively reclaimed power at the pivotal Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury in 1471, resulting in the deaths of Warwick and Edward of Westminster, Henry VI’s heir. Shortly thereafter, Henry VI himself perished under suspicious circumstances in the Tower of London, consolidating Edward IV’s reign. Yet Edward’s earlier secret marriage to Elizabeth Woodville continued to alienate powerful supporters, leaving underlying tensions unresolved.

This period also saw profound cultural advancements with William Caxton, an English merchant and printer, establishing England’s first printing press in 1476 at Westminster. Caxton's press issued its first dated English printed work, Dictes or Sayenges of the Phylosophers (1477), marking a pivotal transformation in the spread and standardization of English literature. Concurrently, Sir Thomas Malory completed his seminal prose romance, Morte Darthur, around 1470, a text that vividly reimagined Arthurian legend and deeply influenced England’s literary culture.

Scotland: Cultural Flourishing Amid Internal Dissent

In Scotland, King James III grappled with ongoing internal dissent exacerbated by his favoritism towards low-born courtiers, causing substantial friction with traditional nobility. Despite political instability, the Scottish Renaissance flourished, driven by significant royal patronage of architecture and the arts. The period saw continued progress in literature and learning, enhancing Scotland’s distinctive cultural identity even amidst political turbulence.

Ireland: Consolidation of Gaelic Power

Gaelic influence significantly strengthened throughout Ireland. Powerful Irish dynasties, notably the Fitzgeralds and O'Neills, maintained substantial autonomy, vigorously opposing English authority beyond The Pale. The era marked a period of considerable cultural output, particularly in poetry and native Irish legal traditions, reinforcing Gaelic identity and pride despite repeated English attempts to assert greater control.

Scandinavia: Continued Kalmar Union Frictions

In Scandinavia, the Kalmar Union under Christian I faced persistent internal challenges, particularly from Sweden, which frequently contested Danish hegemony. Christian’s authority remained precarious, maintained primarily through diplomacy, marriage alliances, and occasional military actions to quell rebellions. The ongoing tensions within the union underscored its inherent fragility and presaged future conflicts.

Iceland: Cultural Preservation in Isolation

Iceland remained committed to preserving its unique literary heritage despite political marginalization and geographic isolation. Icelanders continued their diligent preservation of sagas and poetry, maintaining a vibrant cultural legacy central to their national identity. Manuscript production flourished, significantly contributing to the historical and literary richness of the region.

Cultural and Artistic Achievements

Northwest Europe experienced considerable artistic and intellectual advancement during this era. English composers, notably influenced by John Dunstaple, further refined polyphonic music through sophisticated harmonies, while ecclesiastical architecture, exemplified by developments at York Minster, increasingly reflected the distinctive Perpendicular Gothic style. This period also saw the proliferation of literary and poetic works, bolstered by the transformative impact of Caxton’s printing press, fundamentally changing literary dissemination and accessibility.

Legacy of the Era

By 1479 CE, Northwest Europe was deeply shaped by ongoing dynastic conflicts, significant cultural advancements, and enduring regional tensions. Edward IV temporarily stabilized England, Scotland advanced culturally amid internal discord, Ireland saw enhanced Gaelic authority, and the Kalmar Union navigated persistent internal challenges. These diverse dynamics collectively defined the social, political, and cultural landscapes of Northwest Europe, laying foundations that would profoundly influence subsequent historical developments.

Warwick's success is short-lived: he overreaches himself with his plan to invade Burgundy in alliance with the King of France, tempted by King Louis' promise of territory in the Netherlands as a reward.

With Warwick in power in England, it is Charles of Burgundy's turn to fear a hostile alliance of England and France.

As an obvious counter to Warwick, he supplies King Edward with money (fifty thousand florins), ships and several hundred men (including handgunners).

Edward sets sail from Flushing on March 11, 1471 with thirty-six ships and twelve hundred men.

He touches briefly on the English coast at Cromer but finds that the Duke of Norfolk, who might have supported him, is away from the area and that Warwick controls this part of the country.

Instead, his ships make for Ravenspurn on the Yorkshire coast, near the mouth of the River Humber, where Henry Bolingbroke had landed in 1399 on his way to reclaim the Duchy of Lancaster and ultimately depose Richard II.

Edward's landing is inauspicious at first; the ships are scattered by bad weather and his men land on March 14 in small detachments over a wide area.

The port of Kingston-upon-Hull refuses to allow Edward to enter, so he makes for York.

initially claiming rather like Bolingbroke that he is seeking only the restoration of the Duchy of York.

He soon gains the city of York and rallies several supporters.

He now begins to march south.

Near Pontefract Castle he evades the troops of Warwick's brother Montagu.

By the time Edward reaches the city of Warwick, he has gathered enough supporters to proclaim himself King again.

The Earl of Warwick sends urgent requests for Queen Margaret, who is gathering fresh forces in France, to join him in England.

He himself is at Coventry, preparing to bar Edward's way to London, while Montagu hastens up behind the King's army.

Edward however, knows that Clarence is ready to turn his coat once again and betray Warwick, his father-in-law.

He marches rapidly west and joins with Clarence's men, who are approaching from Gloucestershire.

Clarence appeals to Warwick to surrender, but Warwick refuses to even speak to him.

Edward's army makes rapidly for London, pursued by Warwick and Montagu.

London is supposedly defended by the 4th Duke of Somerset, but he is absent and the city readily admits Edward.

The unfortunate and by now feeble Henry VI is sent back to the Tower of London.

Edward then turns about to face Warwick's approaching army.

They meet on April 14 at the Battle of Barnet.

In a confused fight in thick fog, some of Warwick's army attack each other by mistake and at the cries of "Treachery!"

his army disintegrates and is routed.

Montagu dies in the battle, and Warwick is cut down trying to reach his horse to escape.