Atlantic West Europe: Consolidation and Conflict (1396–1407)

The period from 1396 to 1407 inaugurates the Upper Late Medieval Age in Atlantic West Europe, a region comprising northern France, the Low Countries (including the Flemish cities of Ghent, Bruges, and Antwerp), and the Loire Valley. This era is characterized by ongoing dynastic struggles, economic shifts, artistic innovation, and foundational changes in political alliances.

Political and Military Developments

The early 15th century sees sustained tensions and shifting alliances, notably influenced by the ongoing Hundred Years' War (1337–1453). England and France continue their intermittent conflicts, with Atlantic West Europe often at the center of confrontation. In 1396, a temporary truce stabilizes the region, allowing both sides to consolidate resources. However, the peace remains fragile, leading eventually to renewed hostilities.

Internal conflicts mark this era as well, including rivalries among noble houses that exacerbate regional instability. Northern France witnesses struggles between Burgundian and Armagnac factions, deeply dividing the French aristocracy and laying the groundwork for future civil unrest.

Economic Developments

Atlantic West Europe's economic life remains dominated by thriving trade networks centered in Flemish cities like Bruges and Ghent, which serve as major hubs for international commerce. Woolen textiles maintain their centrality in the regional economy, although competition and disputes with English merchants over wool supply lead to trade disruptions. Bruges solidifies its role as the leading commercial center, facilitating extensive trade with Italian and Hanseatic merchants. Meanwhile, artisanal guilds in these prosperous cities grow more powerful and assertive in their local influence.

Cultural and Artistic Trends

Culturally, the region continues to develop its artistic reputation, exemplified by the early works of the Flemish Primitive painters, who build foundations for later masters like Jan van Eyck. Artistic patronage from the Burgundian court supports an atmosphere of experimentation, laying the groundwork for the stylistic innovations soon to transform European art.

Literary culture flourishes as well, with increased emphasis on vernacular works in French and Dutch, reflecting a growing sense of regional identity distinct from classical Latin traditions.

Technological and Societal Changes

The turn of the 15th century witnesses advances in maritime technology, driven by an increased desire for oceanic exploration and commerce. Shipbuilding techniques improve steadily in response to growing trade demands and competition, particularly from rising maritime powers in Iberia. Societal structures experience modest changes, as urban elites in trading cities begin to consolidate power, increasing tension with traditional feudal aristocracies.

Long-term Consequences and Significance

The era from 1396 to 1407 proves formative for Atlantic West Europe, setting a trajectory marked by intensified regional tensions, burgeoning economic power, and burgeoning cultural prestige. While temporary truces provide brief stability, underlying political fragmentation remains unresolved, presaging intensified conflicts and transformations in the following decades.

This period, therefore, lays essential foundations for the region’s complex future, marking the start of a critical transitional age in Atlantic West Europe's evolution through the Upper Late Medieval period.

The Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War: France's Internal Struggle Amidst the Hundred Years' War (1407–1435)

As France was already devastated by the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) and the conflicts surrounding the Western Schism (1378–1417), a civil war erupted between two rival factions of the French royal family, further weakening the kingdom and inviting English intervention. This conflict, known as the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War (1407–1435), pitted the House of Orléans (the Armagnacs) against the House of Burgundy, creating internal chaos at a critical moment in France’s history.

I. Origins of the Conflict: The Murder of Louis of Orléans (1407)

• King Charles VI of France suffered from recurring bouts of insanity, rendering him unable to govern effectively.
• This left power in the hands of rival noble factions:
  • The Burgundians, led by John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, who sought to dominate the French court.
  • The Orléanists (later the Armagnacs), led by Louis I, Duke of Orléans, the king’s ambitious younger brother.
• On November 23, 1407, John the Fearless orchestrated the assassination of Louis of Orléans in Paris, triggering open war between the two factions.

II. The Armagnacs vs. The Burgundians

• The Armagnacs, named after Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, who led the Orléanist faction, were supported by:
  • The Dauphin (the future Charles VII).
  • Southern and central France.
  • Pro-Valois nobles who opposed Burgundian influence.
• The Burgundians, led by John the Fearless, drew support from:
  • Northern France, including Paris.
  • The powerful Burgundian Netherlands.
  • Merchants and factions favoring English alliances.

III. English Involvement and the Treaty of Troyes (1420)

• The conflict further destabilized France, allowing England to expand its conquests.
• In 1419, John the Fearless was assassinated by the Dauphin’s supporters, escalating the war.
• In 1420, the Treaty of Troyes, signed between the Burgundians and the English, disinherited the Dauphin and recognized England’s Henry V as heir to the French throne.

IV. Resolution: The Treaty of Arras (1435)

• The civil war dragged on for years, preventing France from effectively resisting English occupation.
• In 1435, the Burgundians, under Philip the Good, switched sides, signing the Treaty of Arras with Charles VII.
• This allowed France to unite against England, leading to the eventual expulsion of the English from France by 1453.

V. Impact and Legacy

• The Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War (1407–1435) was one of the most destructive internal conflicts in French history, delaying France’s recovery from English invasions.
• It permanently shaped French politics, reinforcing the importance of Burgundian power in European affairs.
• The Burgundian betrayal of the English in 1435 ultimately helped France regain the upper hand in the Hundred Years' War.

This civil war within a war deepened France’s crisis, allowing English expansion, but its resolution in 1435 marked the beginning of France’s resurgence and ultimate victory in the Hundred Years' War.

The Assassination of Louis of Orléans and the Outbreak of the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War (1407–1477)

On November 23, 1407, Louis, Duke of Orléans, was brutally assassinated in the streets of Paris, a murder orchestrated by his rival, John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy. This political killing triggered a civil war between the House of Orléans (later the Armagnacs) and the House of Burgundy, a conflict that would destabilize France for decades and only conclude with the death of John’s grandson, Charles the Bold, in 1477.

I. The Rivalry Between John the Fearless and Louis of Orléans

• The power struggle between John the Fearless and Louis of Orléans escalated as both men vied for control over the French government, taking advantage of King Charles VI’s recurring bouts of insanity.
• After a series of kidnappings and recoveries of the Dauphin, John managed to have himself officially appointed as guardian of the king’s children, further straining relations with Louis.
• The two rivals soon exchanged open threats, as John’s influence over the royal court grew, particularly in Paris, where he had secured the loyalty of the University and the merchants.

II. The Assassination of Louis of Orléans (November 23, 1407)

• On the night of November 23, 1407, Louis of Orléans was attacked by fifteen men on the Rue Vieille du Temple in Paris.
• His arms were literally severed, leaving him defenseless before being killed.
• No one doubted that the order had come from John the Fearless, who boldly took responsibility for the murder.

III. Justification and Political Gain for Burgundy

• Rather than concealing his crime, John publicly justified the assassination.
• He secured the support of the Parisian population and the University of Paris, promising to reintroduce ordinances similar to the Great Ordinance of 1357, which had previously limited royal power in favor of noble and urban governance.
• John commissioned the Sorbonne theologian Jean Petit to write an elegy in praise of tyrannicide, effectively framing the assassination as a righteous act against an alleged "tyrant."

IV. The Outbreak of the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War (1407–1435)

• The murder of Louis of Orléans plunged France into a bloody civil war between:
  • The Burgundians, led by John the Fearless, supported by Parisian merchants and scholars.
  • The Orléanists, later known as the Armagnacs, led by Charles, Duke of Orléans (Louis’ son) and supported by the Valois royal family and southern nobility.
• After escaping Paris and engaging in several skirmishes, John was able to reconcile with King Charles VI, but the rivalry between Burgundy and the French royal family deepened.

V. The Long-Term Consequences: Seventy Years of Division

• The Armagnac-Burgundian conflict weakened France, allowing English forces to expand their control during the Hundred Years’ War.
• The feud did not fully end until 1477, with the death of John’s grandson, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and the absorption of most of Burgundy’s territories into the French Crown.

The assassination of Louis of Orléans in 1407 was the catalyst for a civil war that divided France for seven decades, shaping French politics and the Hundred Years' War, and ultimately leading to the downfall of the independent Duchy of Burgundy in 1477.

Bernard, Count of Armagnac and the Rise of the Armagnac Faction (1407–1418)

Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac (1360–1418), a Gascon magnate, first gained influence at the French courtthrough his family’s ties to the House of Visconti in Milan. His sister, Béatrice d'Armagnac, married Carlo Visconti, while Louis, Duke of Orléans, married Valentina Visconti, creating a strong political alliance between the Armagnacs and the Orléanists.

After Louis of Orléans was assassinated in 1407 on the orders of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, Bernard became the leader of the anti-Burgundian faction, which soon became known as the Armagnacs.

I. The Assassination of Louis of Orléans and the Formation of the Armagnac Party

• In 1407, John the Fearless had Louis of Orléans murdered, triggering open conflict between Burgundians and Orléanists.
• As a key Orléanist supporter, Bernard assumed leadership of the faction, which began rallying opposition against the Burgundians.
• Over time, the anti-Burgundian coalition became known as the "Armagnacs," named after Bernard’s dominant role in leading the movement.

II. The Armagnacs vs. the Burgundians: Civil War in France

• The rivalry escalated into a full-scale civil war (1407–1435) between:
  • The Armagnacs, led by Bernard VII and later by Charles d'Orléans and the Dauphin (future Charles VII).
  • The Burgundians, led by John the Fearless and later Philip the Good, supported by Parisian merchants and later allied with the English.
• In 1410, Bernard married his daughter Bonne d'Armagnac to Charles, Duke of Orléans, further strengthening his ties to the Orléanist cause.

III. Bernard’s Leadership and Influence in France

• By 1413, Bernard had secured control of the French government as Constable of France, effectively ruling in the name of the Dauphin (future Charles VII).
• His rule was marked by brutal repression of Burgundian supporters, particularly after the Cabochien Revolt in Paris (1413).
• His leadership ended tragically in 1418, when the Burgundians stormed Paris, massacred Armagnac supporters, and executed Bernard.

IV. Long-Term Impact and Legacy

• Bernard’s leadership cemented the lasting division between the Armagnacs and Burgundians, a rift that destabilized France for decades.
• His violent feud with the Burgundians allowed England to exploit France’s internal chaos, culminating in the Treaty of Troyes (1420), which nearly disinherited the Valois dynasty.
• Even after Bernard’s death, the Armagnac faction remained a powerful force, ultimately leading the resistance against English rule under Charles VII and Joan of Arc.

The rise of Bernard, Count of Armagnac, as leader of the anti-Burgundian faction (1407–1418) was a defining moment in French history, as his conflict with Burgundy fueled civil war and weakened France during the Hundred Years' War.

Atlantic West Europe: Civil Strife and Cultural Flourishing (1408–1419)

The era of 1408 to 1419 continues the early phase of the Upper Late Medieval Age (1396–1539) in Atlantic West Europe, a region spanning northern France, the Low Countries, and the Loire Valley. These years are defined by heightened internal conflict, notable political upheaval, significant economic adjustments, and considerable artistic and cultural developments.

Political and Military Developments

This era is profoundly shaped by the intensification of the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War (1407–1435) within France, following the assassination of Louis of Orléans in 1407 by agents of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy. The brutal factional rivalry divides French nobility sharply, fueling instability that severely weakens royal authority. In 1415, the Battle of Agincourt dramatically illustrates France’s vulnerability, with the English under Henry V decisively defeating French forces, capturing or killing many of the kingdom’s most important nobles. The following years see English control expand significantly, notably into Normandy and surrounding territories, plunging Atlantic West Europe deeper into political turmoil.

Economic Developments

Despite political unrest, the economy of Atlantic West Europe remains resilient. Flemish cities, particularly Bruges, Ghent, and emerging Antwerp, maintain their prominence as centers of international trade. Yet, intermittent warfare and political disruptions increasingly affect commerce, complicating wool and cloth trade routes between England and the Continent. To counteract these difficulties, merchants and artisans intensify local production and diversify trading connections, bolstering resilience despite political instability.

Cultural and Artistic Trends

Cultural life experiences remarkable growth in this period. Under Burgundian patronage, artistic innovation thrives, particularly in illuminated manuscripts, tapestry-making, and early panel painting. The court of Burgundy, despite its political intrigues, fosters an opulent culture, commissioning works from artists who set a precedent for subsequent artistic movements. Literary production also flourishes, driven by the complex political climate, producing works reflecting contemporary anxieties and critiques, notably those dealing with themes of loyalty, betrayal, and governance.

Technological and Societal Changes

Technological advancements continue gradually, particularly in maritime navigation, as demand grows for safer, more reliable trade routes around war-torn regions. Urban elites further consolidate power in cities like Bruges and Ghent, challenging traditional feudal relationships and shifting societal structures toward more centralized civic governance. These transformations begin redefining regional identity, especially as civic pride and autonomy grow stronger within influential urban centers.

Long-term Consequences and Significance

The years 1408–1419 significantly deepen the region’s internal fractures, embedding tensions that will profoundly influence subsequent decades. The disastrous loss at Agincourt marks a turning point, significantly weakening French royal authority and bolstering English ambitions. Simultaneously, Burgundian influence continues to shape the region culturally, artistically, and politically, laying the groundwork for future power dynamics.

This era solidifies Atlantic West Europe as both a battlefield of powerful dynastic ambitions and a crucible of artistic innovation, shaping the political landscape and cultural heritage for generations to come.

The Formation of the Armagnac League and the Renewed Civil War (1410)

By 1410, Charles, Duke of Orléans, still seeking to avenge the assassination of his father, Louis of Orléans (murdered in 1407 on the orders of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy), had begun actively opposing Burgundian power. Although the Peace of Chartres (1409) had briefly halted hostilities, tensions quickly reignited following Charles’ marriage to Bonne d’Armagnac on April 15, 1410, at Gien.

The marriage solidified a powerful anti-Burgundian alliance, formally uniting Charles with his father-in-law, Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, who became the leader of the anti-Burgundian faction, now known as the Armagnac party.

I. The Formation of the Armagnac League (April 1410)

• At the wedding of Charles of Orléans and Bonne d’Armagnac, prominent noblemen gathered to form a league against John the Fearless and his Burgundian allies.
• This coalition provided the Orléanist faction with a new leader, as Bernard VII of Armagnac assumed the role of protector of Charles of Orléans and his mother, Valentina Visconti.
• With a new figurehead and a unified cause, the faction rebranded itself as the "Armagnac party."

II. Key Members of the Armagnac Alliance

• Charles, Duke of Orléans – The son of the murdered Louis, seeking revenge against Burgundy.
• Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac – The father-in-law of Charles, assuming leadership of the faction.
• John, Duke of Berry – The uncle of both Charles VI and Charles of Orléans, serving as a mediator turned ally of the Armagnacs.
• Louis II, Duke of Bourbon – A longtime opponent of Burgundian influence.
• John V, Duke of Brittany – Bringing Brittany’s considerable military strength to the faction.
• John I, Count of Alençon – Another key supporter opposing Burgundian control.
• Charles, Count of Clermont (later Charles I, Duke of Bourbon) – Son of the Duke of Bourbon, committed to resisting John the Fearless.

III. Renewed Civil War: The Armagnacs vs. the Burgundians

• With the formation of the Armagnac League, open war resumed between:
  • The Armagnacs, supporting Charles VI’s son, the Dauphin, and the Orléanist cause.
  • The Burgundians, led by John the Fearless, who controlled Paris and much of northern France.
• The conflict paralyzed France, leading to:
  • Further foreign intervention, particularly from England, which exploited French divisions during the Hundred Years' War.
  • A bloody civil war that would last until 1435, exacerbating the weakness of the French monarchy.

IV. Impact and Legacy

• The creation of the Armagnac party in 1410 ensured that the civil war would not be resolved peacefully.
• The feud between the Houses of Orléans and Burgundy would define French politics for the next 25 years, weakening the kingdom during a crucial period in the Hundred Years' War.
• The internal strife allowed England to advance, culminating in Henry V’s victory at Agincourt (1415) and the Treaty of Troyes (1420), which disinherited the Dauphin in favor of the English king.

The Armagnac-Burgundian conflict, which began in earnest with the marriage alliance of 1410, tore France apart, paving the way for English dominance and further political instability in the early 15th century.

Bernard VII of Armagnac and the Ravages of the Écorcheurs (1410)

By 1410, Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, had emerged as the leader of the Armagnac faction, opposing John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, in the escalating civil war between the Armagnacs and Burgundians. Known for his brutality and military prowess, Bernard commanded troops from the Ardour and Garonne regions, reinforcing his forces with mercenary war bands from the Midi—the infamous Écorcheurs (literally, "flayers of dead bodies").

These ruthless soldiers pillaged and devastated the countryside, stripping their victims of everything, often down to their very clothes, leaving entire villages in ruin. Under Bernard’s leadership, the Armagnac forces advanced toward Paris, reaching the Saint-Marcel suburb, threatening Burgundian-controlled territory.

I. The Écorcheurs: Terrorizing France

• The Écorcheurs were unruly mercenaries, notorious for their brutality and looting, often attacking both civilians and opposing forces.
• Originally formed from free companies during the Hundred Years’ War, these bands of plunderers became a defining feature of the Armagnac campaigns.
• Bernard VII unleashed them on the outskirts of Paris, where they sacked towns and villages, causing widespread terror.

II. The Armagnac Advance on Paris

• Bernard’s forces, led by the Écorcheurs, ravaged the countryside surrounding Paris, using scorched-earth tactics to weaken the Burgundian faction.
• His troops pushed into the Saint-Marcel suburb, a direct threat to the capital, then under Burgundian influence.
• The violence and destruction forced a temporary halt in the conflict, as both sides sought to regroup.

III. The Treaty of Bicêtre (November 2, 1410)

• As the civil war intensified, both factions recognized the need for a temporary ceasefire.
• On November 2, 1410, the Treaty of Bicêtre was signed, suspending hostilities—though the peace was short-lived.
• This truce failed to resolve the deeper power struggle, and fighting soon resumed, further destabilizing France during the ongoing Hundred Years' War.

IV. Legacy and Consequences

• Bernard VII’s use of the Écorcheurs set a precedent for unchecked mercenary violence, which would continue to plague France for decades.
• The Armagnac-Burgundian conflict only deepened, ultimately leading to the massacre of the Armagnacs in Paris (1418) and the Treaty of Troyes (1420), which disinherited the Dauphin in favor of Henry V of England.
• The Écorcheurs remained a scourge throughout France, persisting well into the 15th century, destabilizing both civilian life and royal authority.

The Armagnac assault on Paris in 1410, led by Bernard VII and his ruthless Écorcheurs, brought terror to the capital and forced a temporary truce at Bicêtre—but the civil war between Armagnacs and Burgundians was far from over.

he Renewal of the Armagnac-Burgundian War and the Battle of Saint-Cloud (1411)

By spring 1411, the Armagnac-Burgundian conflict had reignited, with both factions resuming open warfare for control of France and its monarchy, still paralyzed by the mental instability of King Charles VI. The Duke of Burgundy, John the Fearless, launched a major military campaign in October 1411, leading a 60,000-strong army into Paris, where he engaged the Breton forces allied with the Armagnacs at La Chapelle.

Though initially repelled, John later outmaneuvered the Armagnac forces and on the night of November 8–9, 1411, left Paris via the Porte Saint-Jacques, marched through Saint-Cloud, and decisively crushed the feared Écorcheurs.

I. The Renewed Civil War (Spring–October 1411)

• After the failure of the Treaty of Bicêtre (1410), both sides mobilized for war once more.
• The Armagnacs, led by Bernard VII of Armagnac and Charles of Orléans, sought to strengthen their hold on the Dauphin Charles and the royal court.
• John the Fearless of Burgundy, determined to reclaim dominance, marched into Paris in October 1411 with a massive 60,000-man army, seeking to drive out the Armagnacs and their allies.

II. The Battle of La Chapelle (October–November 1411)

• The Breton allies of the Armagnacs, heavily fortified, retrenched at La Chapelle, a strategic position in northern Paris.
• John’s Burgundian forces launched an assault, but the Bretons held their position, forcing him to withdraw temporarily.

III. The Night Maneuver and Victory at Saint-Cloud (November 8–9, 1411)

• On the night of November 8–9, John the Fearless secretly withdrew via the Porte Saint-Jacques, marching his forces through Saint-Cloud.
• The maneuver allowed him to catch the Armagnac Écorcheurs off guard.
• In a decisive battle, the Burgundians crushed the mercenary bands, delivering a significant blow to the Armagnac forces.

IV. Consequences and Escalation of the War

• The Burgundian victory weakened the Armagnac faction, though the war was far from over.
• By 1413, the Burgundians had seized control of Paris, only to lose it again to the Armagnacs in 1414.
• The continued civil war left France vulnerable, paving the way for Henry V of England’s invasion in 1415, leading to the disastrous French defeat at Agincourt.

The Battle of Saint-Cloud (1411) was a turning point in the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War, as John the Fearless regained military momentum, but the ongoing conflict would further fracture France, allowing England to take advantage of the chaos in the coming years.

The Siege of Bourges and the Peace of 1412: A Temporary Halt in the Armagnac-Burgundian War

In 1412, the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War saw John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, aggressively pursuing the princes of Orléans and their allies to Bourges, the stronghold of the Armagnac faction. At the same time, Charles of Orléans and Bernard VII of Armagnac were laying siege to the city. However, the arrival of the royal army in front of Bourges on June 11, 1412, forced both factions to seek a truce.

After weeks of negotiations, a peace treaty was signed at Bourges on July 15, 1412, which was later confirmed at Auxerre on August 22, 1412.

I. The Siege of Bourges and the Stalemate

• John the Fearless pursued the Orléanists and Armagnacs to Bourges, aiming to decisively crush their faction.
• Meanwhile, Charles of Orléans and Bernard VII of Armagnac were besieging the city, attempting to secure control of the Loire region.
• The arrival of the royal army on June 11, 1412, forced both sides to halt their offensives and negotiate a settlement.

II. The Peace of Bourges (July 15, 1412) and the Confirmation at Auxerre (August 22, 1412)

• The treaty of Bourges (July 15, 1412) attempted to defuse hostilities, securing:
  • A temporary ceasefire between the Armagnacs and Burgundians.
  • A royal intervention, reaffirming King Charles VI’s authority over both factions.
  • Agreements for land and power-sharing, though neither side fully adhered to the terms.
• The treaty was officially confirmed in Auxerre on August 22, 1412, reinforcing the temporary truce.

III. The Fragility of Peace and Renewed War

• Despite the treaty, tensions remained unresolved, as both factions continued to distrust each other.
• By 1413, the war resumed, with the Cabochien Revolt in Paris, where Burgundian-aligned factions attempted to seize full control of the capital.
• The continued civil war left France vulnerable, ultimately allowing Henry V of England to launch his invasion in 1415, leading to the Battle of Agincourt.

The Peace of Bourges (1412) and its confirmation at Auxerre temporarily halted hostilities in the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War, but the deeper power struggle remained unsolved, leading to continued internal strife and English intervention in France.