Maritime East Asia (2637–2494 BCE): Legendary Foundations and Cultural Innovations

Between 2637 BCE and 2494 BCE, Maritime East Asia—comprising lower Primorsky Krai, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese Archipelago below northern Hokkaido, Taiwan, and southern, central, and northeastern China—witnesses critical advancements, legendary foundations, and key cultural innovations that lay essential groundwork for later civilizations. This age is traditionally dominated by Chinese legendary figures, such as the celebrated Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), and marked by significant Neolithic cultural advances, notably the refined pottery of the Longshan Culture in China, the expansion of settled agriculture, early sericulture, developments in divination practices, and intricate Jōmon pottery traditions in Japan.

Legendary Reign of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi)

The era is strongly influenced by the legendary reign of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), regarded by Chinese tradition as the first of the "Five Emperors." According to historian Sima Qian (writing much later in the Shiji), Huangdi rules from 2697 BCE until his death in 2598 BCE, initiating profound cultural and technological transformations. He is traditionally credited with essential inventions, including the principles of traditional Chinese medicine, significantly influencing subsequent Chinese medical practices and theories.

Under his legendary administration, Huangdi’s young wife, Xilingji, traditionally receives credit for the discovery and refinement of silk culture—or sericulture—around the third millennium BCE. Early silk production, involving domesticated silkworms (Bombyx mori), initially operates on a small, closely guarded scale, laying the foundations for what becomes one of China's most enduring and coveted secrets.

Additionally, legend attributes to Cangjie, a bureaucrat serving under Huangdi, the invention of the first Chinese characters (zì) around 2650 BCE. Inspired by observing the vein patterns on a tortoise at Mount Yangxu (modern Shanxi Province), Cangjie supposedly develops an intricate symbolic writing system based on nature’s patterns. Tradition dramatically states that this event was so transformative that demons mourned and grains fell like rain, symbolizing the dawn of civilization itself.

Longshan Culture: Pottery, Urbanization, and Agriculture

Simultaneously, during the late Chinese Neolithic, the prosperous Longshan Culture emerges along the central and lower Yellow River (Huang He), with origins traced back to around 3000 BCE and continuing prominently through this period. Named after the archaeological site at Longshan, Shandong Province, the culture is renowned for its highly polished, thin-walled black pottery (often termed "egg-shell pottery"), characterized by wheel-turned production methods that represent a significant technological advancement from earlier Yangshao ceramics.

Longshan pottery, used extensively for rituals and burials, signifies increasing sophistication in craft specialization and cultural expression. Remarkably, this pottery tradition expands widely across regions, reaching the Yangzi River valley and even the southeastern coastal areas, illustrating a broadening cultural exchange and migration within ancient China.

Longshan settlements evolve significantly during this period, demonstrating early urban characteristics, including fortified cities enclosed by substantial rammed-earth walls and moats. Notably, the site at Taosi, located in today's Shanxi Province, emerges as the largest walled Longshan settlement, exemplifying the nascent urbanization process.

Expansion of Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices become increasingly sophisticated and widespread, with permanent farming settlements expanding extensively into the eastern plains of China, Manchuria, and southern regions. By this age, rice cultivation is securely established, particularly in the Yangzi River basin, ensuring long-term demographic growth, economic stability, and cultural continuity across Lower East Asia.

Early Chinese Divination Practices

In conjunction with cultural and agricultural innovations, archaeological evidence from this era suggests the practice of early forms of divination in China. These ritual practices involve interpreting crack patterns formed in heated cattle bones—methods that later evolve into sophisticated oracle bone inscriptions central to Chinese divination and early historical record-keeping.

Japan: Middle Jōmon Cultural Flourishing

Meanwhile, in southern Japan (south of an imaginary line from modern Hokkaido through northern Honshu), the Middle Jōmon period (approximately 3000 BCE onward) sees a remarkable demographic expansion, evidenced by numerous archaeological sites. Potters in central Japan produce elaborately decorated and sculptural pottery, distinctively differing from earlier, simpler conical and cylindrical ceramics of northern Japan.

This period is especially notable for the manufacture of intricate clay figurines (dogū), likely associated with fertility and funerary rituals, reflecting early spiritual and social practices. The distinct regional pottery styles underscore Japan's early cultural diversity and sophisticated artisanal traditions, laying foundations for subsequent Jōmon cultural developments.

Legacy of the Age: Cultural Foundations and Technological Innovations

Thus, the age 2637–2494 BCE profoundly shapes the foundational cultural landscape of Maritime East Asia. Legendary Chinese rulers and heroes symbolize essential cultural and technological advances, notably traditional medicine, silk production, and early writing systems. Simultaneously, significant pottery innovations and the early steps toward urbanization mark the Longshan period in China, while the Jōmon pottery tradition flourishes in Japan, indicating complex cultural and social dynamics.

These developments together establish enduring cultural, technological, and societal frameworks, fundamentally influencing subsequent historical trajectories across Lower East Asia into the ensuing ages.

Remains found at Chinese archaeological sites suggest that the inhabitants used a method of divination based on interpreting the crack patterns formed in heated cattle bones.

Athenian tradition relates that during the time of the Dorian “invasion” of the Peloponnesus, around 1068 BCE, the Dorians had consulted the Delphic Oracle, who prophesied that their invasion would succeed as long as the king was not harmed.

The news of this prophecy, that only the death of an Athenian king would ensure the safety of Athens, quickly found its way to the ears of Codrus.

In devotion to his people, Codrus disguised himself as a peasant and made it to the vicinity of the Dorian encampment across the river, where he provoked a group of Dorian soldiers.

He was put to death in the quarrel, and the Dorians, realizing Codrus had been slain, decided to retreat in fear of their prophesied defeat.

In the aftermath of these events, no one thought himself worthy to succeed Codrus, the title of king was abolished, and that of archon substituted for it.

The first such archon was Codrus' son, Medon, who rules from 1068 to 1048; his successor is Acastus.

The later Athenian tradition varies on the exact position of this line; they held archonship for life, and exercised the sacral powers of kingship, as did the archon basileus later.

The hybrid post-Mycenaean culture of southern Greece, a blend of the formerly barbarous invaders and the remnants of the indigenous population, evolves in some areas, notably Attica, into a cohesive Greek civilization about the middle of the eleventh century BCE.

The former Mycenaeans’ close contact with the more advanced civilizations of the East is quickly elevating the level of their culture.

Israel wages a fierce border war with Syria throughout the reign of Ahab, in which Israel, in spite of occasional victories, proves the weaker, and in the meantime, the Moabite king Mesha successfully revolts and occupies the southern portions of the territory of Gad.

According to the Hebrew scriptures, Elisha, the prophet Elijah’s disciple and designated successor, becomes active in the northern kingdom from 850.

Ahab’s wife, the Sidonian princess Jezebel, zealously promotes the worship of the Phoenician god Baal and supports four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal, according to the Hebrew scriptures (1 Kings).

When the prophet Elijah opposes her and rouses popular sentiment against the pagan prophets, she orders his death, forcing him to flee.

Jehoram of Israel, the son of Ahab and Jezebel and king of Israel, maintains close relations with Judah.

Together with Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, Jehoram unsuccessfully attempts to subdue a revolt of Moab against Israel.

As had his father, Jehoram later endeavors to recover Ramoth-gilead from Hazael, king of Damascus.

His nephew Ahaziah, who had succeeded his father as king of Judah, aids him in this matter.

Wounded during the fighting at Ramoth-gilead, Jehoram has retired to Jezreel in Judah.

During his convalescence, Jehu, a commander of chariots on Israel's frontier facing Damascus and Assyria, leads a coup to overthrow the dynasty of Omri (II Kings 9-10) on the instructions of Elijah.

Jehu's revolt, which extinguishes the dynasty of Omri (including Jehoram, Ahaziah—who was visiting him—and Ahab's wife, Jezebel), takes place in the 840s, when the dynasty is already in decline.

Jehu slaughters the entire royal family in about 843 and purges Israel of the idolatrous Baal worship.

Jezebel, at Jehu’s order, is cast from a palace window by her eunuchs; dogs, as Elijah had supposedly prophesied, devour her body.

Elijah in 842 anoints Jehu king.

Jehu's success ends the Phoenician alliance, and the spirit of fanaticism makes its renewal impossible.

Israel alone is no match for the incursions of Assyria's Shalmaneser III, who moves westward in 841, investing Damascus and exacting tribute both from Jezebel's city of Sidon and from Jehu.

According to the Hebrew scriptures (1 Kings), the prophet Elisha, using Elijah’s mantle, carries on his late master’s attempt to shape the national destiny by announcing the divine will.

Unlike Elijah, a prophet characterized by his simplicity, Elisha is a man of political dexterity.

Hostilities remain constant also between Judah and Edom; according to the books of Kings and Chronicles, Amaziah even captures Sela (Petra), the capital.

Amaziah, who began his reign by punishing the murderers of his father (2 Kings 14:5; 2 Chronicles 25:3), is the first to employ a mercenary army of one hundred thousand Israelite soldiers, doing so in his attempt to bring the Edomites again under the yoke of Judah (2 Chr. 25:5, 6).

He is commanded by an unnamed prophet to send back the mercenaries, to whom he acquiesces (2 Chr. 25:7-10, 13), much to the annoyance of the mercenaries.

His obedience to this command is followed by a decisive victory over the Edomites (2 Chr. 25:14-16).

The cryptic nuclear text of the oracle known as the "I Ching,” or "Book of Changes" is written at the beginning of the first millennium BCE.

The prophet Hosea, who lives in the northern kingdom of Israel between 755 and 725, is married to an unfaithful wife and uses this personal tragedy, described in the first part of The Book of Hosea, as a parable of the relationship between God and Israel.

In the second part (chaps. 4-14), Hosea develops the theme of unfaithfulness, rebuking corrupt leaders and priests and chastising the Israelites for their superstition and idolatry.

He is the first biblical writer to employ the imagery of marriage as an illustration of the relationship between God and his people.

Isaiah, again after a time of silence, addresses Hezekiah's second attempt, from 705 to 701, to establish political independence.

Compiled as the first part of the “Book of Isaiah,” the writings from these periods fall into seven collections of sayings on themes of sin, judgment, and deliverance from the judgment. (Christians will interpret Isaiah’s Immanuel prophecies in Chapters 6—12 as references to Christ.)

At the accession of the Assyrian king Sennacherib in 705 BCE, further rebellions break out all over the empire.

Hezekiah, according to 2 Kings 20:20, 2 Chronicles 32:30, may be the leader of the rebellion in Palestine, which includes the city-states of Ascalon and Ekron and gains the support of Egypt.

In preparing for the inevitable Assyrian campaign to retake Palestine, Hezekiah strengthens the defenses of his capital and digs out the famous Siloam tunnel, which brings the water of the Gihon springs to a reservoir inside the city wall.

Hezekiah succumbs, however, to the might of Sennacherib, who in 701 overruns Judah, takes forty-six of its walled cities and places much conquered Judaean territory under the control of neighboring states.

While Sennacherib is besieging the city of Lachish, Hezekiah seeks to spare Jerusalem itself from capture by paying a heavy tribute of gold and silver to the Assyrian king, who nevertheless demands the city's unconditional surrender.

According to 2 Kings, Jerusalem is saved by a miraculous plague that decimates the Assyrian army (”smitten by the angel of the Lord”) felling one hundred and eighty-five thousand men. (Contradictory dates for Sennacherib's invasion are given in the Book of Kings, and he may possibly have invaded Judah a second time near the close of Hezekiah's reign.)

Though forced to withdraw, Sennacherib compels Hezekiah to renew his tribute payments to Assyria.

Manasseh, unlike his reformer father, is, according to the Hebrew Bible, an apostate king who stills any prophetic outcries, reintroduces Canaanite religious practices and even offers his son as a human sacrificial victim.

Soothsaying, augury, sorcery and necromancy are also reintroduced by Manasseh. (The Deuteronomic historian also notes that many innocent persons were killed during his reign.)