The first known system of taxation appears in Egypt around 3000 BCE to 2800 BCE: the pharaoh appears before his people in a biennial event, the "Following of Horus," and collects taxes, revenues due to him in his dual role, as the head of state and the incarnation of the god Horus.

Egyptians raise pigeons as food; they pickle small, raw birds in brine and eat them cold, but employ more sophisticated cooking methods as well; wealthy Egyptians especially enjoy elaborate stews.

The Ahlamû (= wanderers) are first mentioned in the el-Amarna letters alluding to the king of Babylon; the presence of the Ahlamû are also attested in Assyria, Nippur and even at Dilmun (Bahrain); Shalmaneser I (1274-1245 BCE) defeats Shattuara, the King of Mitanni and his Hittite and Ahlamû mercenaries are mentioned in the Jazirah.

The term appears equivalent to the Egyptian term Shasu (Shsw = wanderer), who replaced the outlaw 'Apiru (cuneiform SA.GAZ) as the major source of instability in the Egyptian Levantine empire from the reign of Tutankhamun onwards.

In the following century, the Ahlamû cut the road from Babylon to Hattusas, and Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244-1208 BCE) claims that he conquered Mari, Hana and Rapiqum on the Euphrates and "the mountain of the Ahlamû,” apparently the region of Jebel Bishri.

Much of Israel in the early fourteenth century BCE is under Aramaean rule for eight years according to the Biblical Book of Judges, until Othniel defeats the forces led by Chushan-Rishathaim, the King of Aram-Naharaim.

Other entities mentioned in the Hebrew Bible include Aram Damascus and Aram Rehob.

Nomadic pastoralists have always been a feature of the Middle East, but their numbers seem to vary according to climatic conditions and the force of neighboring states inducing permanent settlement.

The period of the Late Bronze Age seems to have been one of increasing aridity, weakening neighboring states, and inducing transhumance pastoralists to spend longer and longer periods with their flocks.

Urban settlements diminished in size, until eventually fully nomadic pastoralist lifestyles come to dominate the region.

These highly mobile, competitive tribesmen with their sudden raids are a continued threat to long distance trade and interfere with the collection of taxes and tribute.

The first Iranian kings to rule Iraq had followed Mesopotamian land-management practices conscientiously.

Between 485 BCE and the conquest by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE, however, very little in Babylon had been repaired and few of its once-great cities remain intact.

Trade also has greatly reduced during this period.

The established trade route from Sardis to Susa does not traverse Babylonia, and the Iranian rulers, themselves much closer to the Orient, have been able to monopolize trade from India and other eastern points.

As a result, Babylonia and Assyria, which together form the ninth satrapy of the Persian Empire, have become economically isolated and impoverished.

Their poverty is exacerbated by the extremely high taxes levied on them: they owe the Iranian crown one thousand talents of silver a year, in addition to having to meet the extortionate demands of the local administrators, and they are responsible for feeding the Iranian court for four months every year.

The effects of the Greek occupation are noteworthy, even though Alexander's major plans for Mesopotamia go unfulfilled, and his generals do little that is positive for Mesopotamia.

Alexander and his successors build scores of cities in the Middle East that are modeled on the Greek city-states.

One of the most important is Seleucia on the Tigris.

The Hellenization of the area includes the introduction of Western deities, Western art forms, and Western thought.

Business revives in Mesopotamia because one of the Greek trade routes runs through the new cities.

Mesopotamia exports barley, wheat, dates, wool, and bitumen; the city of Seleucia exports spices, gold, precious stones, and ivory.

Cultural interchange between Greek and Mesopotamian scholars is responsible for the saving of many Mesopotamian scientific, especially astronomical, texts.

Mark Antony’s Role in the Gallic Wars and the Carnutes’ Revolt (54–52 BCE)

By 54 BCE, Mark Antony had become a staff officer in Caesar’s armies, assisting in military campaigns in Gaul and Germany. His close friendship and family ties with Caesar ensured that he remained a key supporter, making himself constantly available for Caesar’s military efforts.

Antony, though an able commander, had a disruptive personality, which would later create political tensions in Rome. However, in the Gallic Wars, he proved his military competence, playing a vital role in Caesar’s campaigns against the Gallic revolts, particularly the Great Revolt of 52 BCE, led by Vercingetorix.

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The Rise of Vercingetorix and the Pan-Gallic Revolt (52 BCE)

• Previous Gallic revolts, such as the Eburones uprising under Ambiorix in 54 BCE, had failed to secure widespread tribal support.
• In early 52 BCE, while Caesar was in Cisalpine Gaul raising troops, Vercingetorix, a chieftain of the Arverni, managed to unite the Gallic tribes against Rome.
• His father, Celtillus, had been executed for attempting to rule all of Gaul, but Vercingetorix succeeded in achieving this goal, adopting modern warfare strategies to counter the Romans.

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The Carnutes: The Sacred Center of Gaul and the Catalyst for Rebellion

• The Carnutes, a powerful Gallic tribe, inhabited the region corresponding to modern Eure-et-Loir, Loiret, and Loir-et-Cher.
• Their territory was considered the sacred center of Gaul, where Druids held their annual pan-Gallic synod.

Political Organization:

• Like several other large Gallic polities, the Carnutes had previously been ruled by kings but later adopted an oligarchic or proto-republican system.
• Rome preferred to deal with client states through kings rather than fractious councils or senates, making it easier to control them through centralized power.

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Caesar’s Imposed Rule Over the Carnutes

• After his campaign against the Belgae in 57 BCE, Caesar set up a protectorate over the Carnutes and installed Tasgetius as king, choosing him from the ruling clan as a reward for loyalty.
• Tasgetius’ rule was presented as a restoration, as his ancestors had once held supreme power.

However, in 54 BCE, Tasgetius was assassinated, which Caesar blamed on an anti-Roman faction among the Carnutes.

• Some historians argue that this was a result of normal internal Gallic politics, but Caesar used the assassination as a propaganda tool to justify further conquest.
• Following Tasgetius’ death, the Carnutes were placed under the control of the Remi, Rome’s most loyal Belgic ally.

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The Carnutes Revolt and the Beginning of the Great Gallic Rebellion

• In early 52 BCE, the Carnutes, led by Cotuatus and Conetodunus, initiated the revolt, believing that Caesar was distracted by the political turmoil in Rome following the murder of Publius Clodius Pulcher.
• On February 13, 52 BCE, in the oppidum of Cenabum, the Carnutes massacred all the Roman merchants and killed one of Caesar’s commissariat officers.

This act served as a rallying cry for rebellion, and the uprising spread rapidly throughout Gaul, culminating in the formation of a united Gallic resistance under Vercingetorix.

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Caesar’s Ruthless Response: The Destruction of Cenabum

• In retaliation, Caesar marched on Cenabum, the prosperous capital of the Carnutes.
• He burned the city, slaughtering the men and selling women and children into slavery.
• The booty from the sacking of Cenabum was distributed among his soldiers, providing a financial incentive to continue the conquest.

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Significance of the Carnutes’ Revolt

• The massacre at Cenabum was the spark that led to the largest and most organized Gallic rebellion against Rome.
• The Carnutes’ rebellion demonstrated that anti-Roman sentiment had spread beyond individual tribes, unifying large sections of Gaul.
• Caesar’s brutal suppression of the revolt sent a clear message to other rebellious tribes about the consequences of defying Roman rule.

Despite the initial success of Vercingetorix, the rebellion would ultimately fail at the Siege of Alesia, solidifying Rome’s conquest of Gaul. However, the Carnutes’ role in initiating the Pan-Gallic uprising ensured their place in Roman and Gallic history as a symbol of defiance against Rome.

The Siege and Destruction of Avaricum (52 BCE): A Turning Point in the Gallic Wars

During the Gallic revolt of 52 BCE, led by Vercingetorix, the Bituriges of Avaricum (modern Bourges) pleaded for their capital city to be spared from destruction. Due to its strong natural defenses, including surrounding marshes and a fortified southern wall, the city was not burned down by the Gauls, unlike many other settlements abandoned to deny resources to the Romans.

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The Siege of Avaricum

• As Julius Caesar pursued the Gallic rebels, he laid siege to Avaricum, one of the most defensible and well-fortified cities in central Gaul.
• The Romans faced difficult conditions, including harsh weather, supply shortages, and the strong defenses of the city.
• Despite this, Caesar’s engineers constructed siege works, allowing the legions to breach the defenses after an extended siege.

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The Fall of Avaricum and the Massacre of Its People

• Once the Romans stormed the city, they massacred nearly all of its inhabitants, leaving only 800 survivors out of a population of approximately 40,000.
• Caesar justified the total destruction of Avaricum as revenge for the earlier ambushes and attacks by the Gauls on Roman troops.
• The plundering of the city provided much-needed supplies and morale boosts for Caesar’s legions.

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Caesar’s Pursuit and Defeat at Gergovia

• After capturing Avaricum, Caesar pursued the retreating Gauls deeper into Arverni territory.
• However, at Gergovia, the stronghold of Vercingetorix, Caesar suffered a rare and humiliating defeat, forcing him to withdraw.
• This temporary setback emboldened the Gallic coalition, leading to a more organized resistance against Rome.

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Significance of the Siege of Avaricum

• The destruction of Avaricum showed Roman military superiority in siege warfare but also deepened Gallic hatred toward Rome.
• The massacre of its people became a rallying cry for resistance, strengthening Vercingetorix’s position as the leader of a united Gallic rebellion.
• Though Gergovia proved to be a setback, the Roman momentum was not lost, culminating in the decisive Siege of Alesia later that year.

The fall of Avaricum remains one of the most brutal episodes of the Gallic Wars, symbolizing both Rome’s relentless military efficiency and the desperate resistance of the Gallic tribes.

The story of Roman Egypt is a sad record of shortsighted exploitation leading to economic and social decline.

Like the Ptolemies, Rome treats Egypt as a mere estate to be exploited for the benefit of the rulers, but however incompetently some of the later Ptolemies had managed their estate, much of the wealth they derived from it had remained in the country itself.

Rome, however, is an absentee landlord, and a large part of the grain delivered as rent by the royal tenants or as tax by the landowners as well as the numerous money-taxes are sent to Rome and represent a complete loss to Egypt.