Marcus Terentius Varro anticipates microbiology and epidemiology in Rerum rusticarum libri III (or Agricultural Topics in Three Books), warning his contemporaries to avoid swamps and marshland, since such areas "breed certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, but which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and cause serious diseases."

The Roman scholar and writer, also known as Varro Reatinus to distinguish him from his contemporary Varro Atacinus, was born in 116 in or near Reate (now Rieti) to a family thought to be of equestrian rank, has always remained close to his roots in the area, owning a large farm in the Reatine plain, probably near Lago di Ripa Sottile, until his old age.

He had studied under the Roman philologist Lucius Aelius Stilo, and later at Athens under the Academic philosopher Antiochus of Ascalon.

Politically, he had supported Pompey, reaching the office of praetor, after having been tribune of the people, quaestor and curule aedile.

He had escaped the penalties of being on the losing side in the civil war through two pardons granted by Julius Caesar, before and after the Battle of Pharsalus.

He had been one of the commission of twenty that carried out the great agrarian scheme of Caesar for the resettlement of Capua and Campania in 59 BCE.

Caesar had later appointed him to oversee the public library of Rome in 47 BCE, but following Caesar's death Mark Antony had proscribed him, resulting in the loss of much of his property, including his library.

Restored to favor by Octavian, Varro devotes himself fully to research and writing.

Among his many works, one that stands out for historians is his compilation of the Varronian chronology, an attempt to determine an exact year-by-year timeline of Roman history up to his time.

It is based on the traditional sequence of the consuls of the Roman Republic, eked out, where that did not fit, by inserting dictatorial and anarchic years.

It has been demonstrated to be somewhat erroneous but has become the widely accepted standard chronology, in large part because it was inscribed on the arch of Augustus in Rome; though that arch no longer stands, a large portion of the chronology has survived under the name of Fasti Capitolini.

The plague disease, caused by Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas including Central Asia, Kurdistan, Western Asia, Northern India and Uganda.

Nestorian graves dating to 1338–39 near Lake Issyk Kul in Kyrgyzstan have inscriptions referring to plague and are thought by many epidemiologists to mark the outbreak of the epidemic, from which it could easily have spread to China and India.

In October 2010, medical geneticists will suggest that all three of the great waves of the plague originated in China.

Descartes, in 1644, advances the notion that the activities of organisms (including humans) occur as a reaction to external stimuli.

The World, originally titled Le Monde and also called Treatise on the Light, written by Descartes between 1629 and 1633, contains a relatively complete version of his philosophy, from method, to metaphysics, to physics and biology.

A follower of the mechanical philosophy, a form of natural philosophy popular in the seventeenth century, Descartes thinks everything physical in the universe to be made of tiny "corpuscles" of matter.

Corpuscularianism is a viewpoint closely related to atomism.

The main difference is that Descartes maintains that there can be no vacuum, and all matter is constantly swirling to prevent a void as corpuscles move through other matter.

The World presents a corpuscularian cosmology in which swirling vortices explain, among other phenomena, the creation of our solar system and the circular motion of planets around the Sun.

Because the work endorses the Copernican view of the moving earth, Descartes had cautiously delayed its release when he heard of the condemnation of Galileo’s Copernicanism by the Catholic Church in Rome and the subsequent burning of the related works.

Descartes had discussed his work on the book, and his decision not to release it, in correspondence with another philosopher, Marin Mersenne.

Some material from The World is revised for publication as Principia philosophiae or Principles of Philosophy (1644), a Latin textbook at first intended by Descartes to replace the Aristotelian textbooks used in universities.

In the Principles, the Copernican tone is softened slightly with a relativist frame of reference.

Northwest Europe (1660–1671 CE): Restoration, Consolidation, and Colonial Ambitions

England: Restoration of the Monarchy

Following a period of republican rule, the monarchy was restored in 1660 with the coronation of Charles II, son of the executed Charles I. This event, known as the Restoration, marked a profound shift back to traditional monarchical governance. Charles II sought reconciliation, issuing the Declaration of Breda promising leniency and liberty of conscience. However, tensions persisted between royal authority and parliamentary power, foreshadowing future conflicts. Overall, the Restoration led to an overall reduction in the power of the crown.

Ireland: Continued English Dominance

In Ireland, the Restoration reinforced English dominance established during the Cromwellian Conquest. Land confiscations from Catholic proprietors were largely upheld, maintaining Protestant ascendancy. The Act of Settlement (1662) confirmed land redistribution, significantly impacting the Irish Catholic population. Resentments continued, fueling sectarian tensions.

Scotland: Restoration and Religious Conflict

The monarchy's restoration in Scotland under Charles II saw renewed religious tensions, as the king sought to enforce episcopal governance over a largely Presbyterian populace. The period saw significant religious persecution, notably through the imposition of the Clarendon Code and Covenanter suppression, heightening internal discord and resistance.

Maritime and Colonial Expansion

The English East India Company strengthened its trade and territorial control in Asia, notably gaining Bombay from Portugal as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza upon her marriage to Charles II in 1662. This acquisition significantly enhanced England’s strategic maritime position. The Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) further challenged Dutch commercial supremacy. Despite mixed military success, England secured crucial territorial gains, notably New Amsterdam(renamed New York), fundamentally reshaping colonial dynamics in North America. The East India Company's strength was bolstered by King Charles II's grant of autonomy around 1670, including rights to territorial acquisitions, minting money, commanding fortresses and troops, and exercising civil and criminal jurisdiction.

Scandinavia: Territorial and Political Adjustments

Denmark-Norway under Frederick III continued to consolidate authority following losses to Sweden. The period was characterized by absolutist reforms, notably through the introduction of hereditary and absolute monarchy in 1660, stabilizing internal governance and strengthening royal control. Territorial tensions with Sweden persisted, though temporarily subdued.

Scientific and Intellectual Flourishing

The Royal Society in England, formally chartered in 1662, accelerated scientific and intellectual developments. Notable figures such as Isaac Newton and Robert Hooke emerged, contributing groundbreaking insights into mathematics, physics, and biology. This vibrant scientific community laid essential groundwork for the Age of Enlightenment.

Cultural and Literary Renaissance

This period marked a literary and cultural renaissance. Playwrights like John Dryden flourished under royal patronage, crafting satirical and politically charged dramas reflective of the Restoration’s social dynamics. Additionally, literary activity burgeoned, notably with John Milton completing his epic masterpiece Paradise Lost in 1667, profoundly influencing English literature.

Religious and Social Dynamics

Religious tolerance fluctuated during this era. The return of the monarchy initially seemed to promise greater tolerance, yet punitive measures like the Clarendon Code limited religious freedoms significantly for non-Anglicans. Social dynamics remained complex, particularly regarding religious minorities such as Catholics and Jews, who continued to engage actively in international trade and commerce.

Crisis and Catastrophe

London suffered a visitation of the plague in 1665, followed by the Great Fire of 1666, which raged for five days, destroying approximately fifteen thousand buildings.

Legacy of the Era

By 1671, Northwest Europe had stabilized significantly compared to the turmoil of previous decades, yet underlying tensions remained unresolved. The Restoration's political settlement set precedents for later constitutional developments, while continued colonial expansion firmly positioned England for future imperial dominance. Scientific and cultural advances laid crucial intellectual foundations, and the era’s complexities foreshadowed ongoing struggles around governance, religion, and social order.

Robert Hooke, employed at Christ Church College, Oxford, as a "chemical assistant" to Dr Thomas Willis, for whom Hooke had developed a great admiration, here met the natural philosopher Robert Boyle, and gained employment as his assistant from about 1655 to 1662, constructing, operating, and demonstrating Boyle's "machina Boyleana" or air pump.

He did not take his Master of Arts until 1662 or 1663.

Hooke had in 1659 described some elements of a method of heavier-than-air flight to Wilkins, but concluded that human muscles were insufficient to the task.

Hooke became Curator of Experiments in 1662 to the newly founded Royal Society, and took responsibility for experiments performed at its weekly meetings.

He will hold this position for over forty years.

Hooke is known for his law of elasticity (Hooke's Law), his work as "the father of microscopy", and for coining the term "cell" to describe the basic unit of life.

The descriptive term for the smallest living biological structure is coined by Hooke in a book he publishes in 1665 when he compares the cork cells he sees through his microscope to the small rooms in which monks live.

The word cell comes from the Latin cellula, meaning 'a small room'.

The first human blood transfusion is administered by Jean-Baptiste Denys, the personal physician to King Louis XIV, when on June 15, 1667, he transfuses nine ounces of lamb's blood to a fifteen-year old boy, bled too many times to count by other doctors because of a fever; he partially recovers, then dies.

Prevailing wisdom at this time is that maggots form naturally from rotting meat.

Italian physician Francesco Redi, who sets out to disprove this, is known for his series of experiments, published in 1668 as Esperienze Intorno alla Generazione degl'Insetti (Experiments on the Generation of Insects) which is regarded as one of the first steps in refuting "spontaneous generation"—a theory also known as Aristotelian abiogenesis.

Redi is also a poet, his best known work being the dithyrambic Bacchus in Tuscany.

Knowledge of insects in the seventeenth century is to a great extent inherited from Aristotle.

According to this classical paradigm, insects are so insignificant they aren't worthy of the types of investigations done on fish, reptiles, and mammals.

Dutch biologist and microscopist Jan Swammerdam publishes his Algemeene Verhandeling van de bloedeloose dierkens, a groundbreaking work in microscopy as well as entomology, in 1669.

Much of Swammerdam's entomological work has been done to show that the difference between insects and the "higher" animals is one of degree, not kind.

Swammerdam is credited with the enhancement of the study of biology due to his work dissecting insects and studying them under microscopes.

Swammerdam's principal interest in this area is demonstrating that insects develop in the same gradual manner as other animals, in contrast to the notion of metamorphosis—the idea that different life stages of an insect (e.g., caterpillar and butterfly) represent a sudden change from one type of animal to another.

He has garnered evidence against this claim from his dissections.

By examining larvae, he has identified underdeveloped adult features in pre-adult animals.

For example, he noticed that the wings of dragonflies and mayflies exist prior to their final molt.

Swammerdam uses these observations to bolster his case for epigenesis in his 1669 publication, Historia Insectorum Generalis (The Natural History of Insects).

This work also includes many descriptions of insect anatomy.

It is here that Swammerdam reveals that the "king" bee has ovaries.

In addition to his research on metamorphosis, Swammerdam's entomological work stands out because he is among the first people to study insects in a systematized fashion (i.e., careful dissection, comparison of different species, and use of the microscope).

His anatomical and behavioral descriptions of bees, wasps, ants, dragonflies, snails, worms, and butterflies are major contributions to the nascent field of entomology.

Atlantic West Europe (1672–1683): Conflict, Expansion, and Cultural Vitality

Between 1672 and 1683, Atlantic West Europe—including northern France, the Low Countries (modern-day Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg), and regions along the Atlantic and English Channel coasts—experienced a turbulent yet transformative period marked by intense warfare, renewed territorial expansion, economic resilience, and sustained cultural and intellectual creativity. Despite challenges, this era solidified the foundations for the region’s future global prominence.

Political and Military Developments

The Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678)

• Known as the "Disaster Year" (Rampjaar) of 1672 in Dutch history, Louis XIV of France invaded the Dutch Republic, allying with England under Charles II. Initial French advances were dramatic, capturing Utrecht and threatening Amsterdam.

• The invasion caused internal political upheaval, resulting in the downfall and assassination of Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt (1672). William III of Orange emerged as Stadtholder, rallying Dutch resistance.

• The Dutch Republic, supported by Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and Brandenburg-Prussia, successfully repelled French forces, leading to the Peace of Nijmegen (1678–1679). France acquired important territories, including parts of the Spanish Netherlands and the Franche-Comté, solidifying its northeastern borders.

Strengthening of Absolutism in France

• Louis XIV reinforced absolute monarchy following military gains. Internal administration tightened under Jean-Baptiste Colbert and Louvois, who enhanced military reforms, infrastructure, and centralized governance.

• French territorial expansion along the eastern frontier (Alsace, Franche-Comté) bolstered France’s geopolitical position, setting the stage for ongoing European conflicts.

Stability and Recovery in the Dutch Republic

• Following the Franco-Dutch War, the Dutch Republic recovered politically and economically under William III’s leadership, though increasingly burdened by military and financial pressures, particularly maintaining large armies against potential future conflicts.

Economic Developments: Resilience and Expansion

French Economic Strength and Colonial Growth

• French maritime commerce expanded dramatically. Atlantic ports like Bordeaux, Nantes, and La Rochelle prospered, driven by trade in wine, sugar, slaves, and colonial commodities from the Caribbean (Saint-Domingue, Martinique) and Canada (New France).

• Colbert’s mercantilist policies supported industrial growth, maritime trade, and colonial settlements, significantly enhancing France’s Atlantic commercial interests.

Dutch Economic Resilience

• Despite initial setbacks in 1672, the Dutch Republic rapidly recovered its position as a maritime and commercial powerhouse, with Amsterdam maintaining dominance in banking, shipping, and global trade.

• The Dutch East India Company (VOC) continued its expansive presence in Asia, while the Dutch West India Company (WIC) engaged heavily in the Atlantic slave trade and plantation economies, notably in Suriname and the Caribbean.

Decline of the Spanish Netherlands' Economy

• The Spanish Netherlands faced prolonged economic stagnation due to warfare, fiscal pressures, and diminished commercial competitiveness. Antwerp and Brussels increasingly fell behind Amsterdam and French Atlantic ports economically, prompting migration of skilled workers and merchants to the Dutch Republic and France.

Religious and Intellectual Developments

Continued Catholic Orthodoxy in France and Spanish Netherlands

• France intensified Catholic orthodoxy, reflected in Louis XIV’s ongoing suppression of Protestant communities, notably the Huguenots. Although formal revocation of the Edict of Nantes occurred later (1685), repression was already intensifying, leading to Huguenot emigration, particularly toward the Dutch Republic and England.

• The Spanish Netherlands remained staunchly Catholic, reinforcing ecclesiastical control and limiting Protestant influences.

Dutch Intellectual and Scientific Flourishing

• The Dutch Republic sustained its intellectual prominence, becoming a hub of scientific inquiry and innovation. Christiaan Huygens, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, and others made groundbreaking scientific discoveries in optics, biology, and astronomy.

• Religious tolerance, though challenged, persisted, facilitating intellectual freedom, attracting persecuted intellectuals, and enriching Dutch scholarly traditions.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

French Cultural Patronage: Baroque and Classicism

• Under Louis XIV, French culture flourished in grand Baroque and Classical forms. Versailles continued to symbolize royal absolutism, magnificently expanded and embellished by architects Jules Hardouin-Mansart and landscape designer André Le Nôtre.

• Artists, playwrights, and musicians—such as Molière, Jean Racine, Jean-Baptiste Lully—thrived, supported by royal patronage, firmly establishing French cultural dominance across Europe.

Dutch Artistic Vitality and Genre Painting

• Despite war and financial burdens, the Dutch Golden Age artistic tradition endured, with artists producing richly detailed domestic scenes, landscapes, still lifes, and portraits. Though Rembrandt had died in 1669, his artistic legacy profoundly influenced contemporaries.

• Painters like Jan Steen and Jacob van Ruisdael contributed significantly during this era, capturing scenes of daily life and natural landscapes, representing a distinctly Dutch cultural identity.

Social and Urban Developments

Urban Growth and Economic Dynamism

• Major Atlantic urban centers—Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Nantes, Bordeaux—continued growing, driven by maritime trade, commercial activity, and industrial expansion. Merchant classes gained greater social prominence and political influence, underpinning urban prosperity.

• Bordeaux's wine industry, exporting significant quantities of wine to England and the Netherlands, became an economic cornerstone, bolstering the city’s prosperity and international recognition.

Social Tensions and Rural Challenges

• Although urban prosperity was notable, rural areas across northern France and parts of the Low Countries faced ongoing economic strain due to warfare, fiscal burdens, and agricultural difficulties. Rural poverty and periodic unrest remained common, contrasting sharply with urban affluence.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The period 1672–1683 was critical in shaping Atlantic West Europe’s historical trajectory, deeply influenced by conflict, economic recovery, cultural vitality, and social transformations:

• Politically, French territorial expansion significantly reshaped Europe’s geopolitical landscape, while the Dutch Republic preserved its independence and commercial prominence despite military threats.

• Economically, the era witnessed sustained maritime commerce and colonial expansion, particularly benefiting France’s Atlantic ports and the resilient Dutch trading empire.

• Culturally and intellectually, French absolutism promoted extraordinary cultural patronage, reinforcing European classical norms, while Dutch scientific inquiry and artistic production continued flourishing, exemplifying a dynamic intellectual climate.

• Religiously, intensified religious tensions and increasing persecution of Protestant minorities foreshadowed major demographic and cultural shifts in subsequent decades.

By 1683, Atlantic West Europe had firmly established its position as a pivotal center of European power, commerce, and culture, laying foundations for its influential role in global affairs throughout subsequent centuries.

Northwest Europe (1672–1683 CE): Wars, Revolution, and Emerging Modernity

England: Political and Religious Tensions

The period from 1672 to 1683 in England was marked by political maneuvering, religious controversy, and tensions between monarchy and parliament. Charles II's pro-Catholic policies led to heightened suspicion, exemplified by the secret Treaty of Dover (1670) with Louis XIV of France, revealed in 1672. Public alarm grew over alleged Catholic plots, notably the Popish Plot (1678), fabricated by Titus Oates, leading to widespread paranoia and anti-Catholic hysteria. The resulting crisis intensified parliamentary opposition to the Crown and fueled the exclusion movement, which sought to bar James, Duke of York (later James II), from succession due to his Catholic faith. Following the Restoration, there was an overall reduction in the power of the crown.

The Netherlands and England: Third Anglo-Dutch War

Northwest Europe was significantly affected by the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674). Initiated by an alliance between England and France, the conflict aimed at undermining Dutch maritime and commercial power. However, despite initial successes, including the Battle of Solebay (1672), England's financial strain and lack of public support led to a quick peace settlement in the Treaty of Westminster (1674), restoring status quo ante bellum.

Ireland: Continuing Struggle for Dominance

In Ireland, the late Restoration period maintained Protestant dominance through a rigid system of land and religious controls. Catholic landownership declined further, reinforcing Protestant ascendancy. Sectarian tensions persisted, foreshadowing future uprisings, as the Catholic majority remained alienated under a Protestant ruling elite.

Scotland: Covenanter Rebellion and Suppression

Scotland experienced fierce religious persecution and resistance, notably through the continued suppression of the Covenanters. The Battles of Drumclog and Bothwell Bridge (1679) highlighted brutal confrontations between royal forces and Presbyterian rebels, underscoring deep divisions that remained unresolved.

Expansion and Power of the English East India Company

The English East India Company continued its rise to dominance during this period. With its charter renewed and expanded by Charles II, the company gained significant territorial and political influence, establishing a more substantial military presence and commercial settlements across India, solidifying the foundation for British imperialism. Sir John Banks, Governor of the East India Company from 1672, negotiated important agreements supplying gunpowder ingredients to the English crown, illustrating the growing political and economic clout of the company.

Scandinavia: Consolidation and Absolutism

Denmark-Norway, under Christian V (1670–1699), solidified the absolute monarchy established by his predecessor, Frederick III. The Danish Law Code of 1683 unified and modernized laws, reflecting Enlightenment principles and strengthening central royal control. The diet disappeared during this period, leading to further centralization of power in Copenhagen and a hierarchical administrative structure dominated by crown officials and bureaucrats, much to the dismay of traditional aristocracy. Agricultural surveys enabled direct taxation of landowners, reducing reliance on revenue from crown lands. Tensions with Sweden remained but were largely diplomatic rather than martial during this era.

Scientific Progress and Cultural Development

The Royal Society in England continued to flourish, promoting experimentation and rational inquiry. Robert Hooke's landmark work Micrographia continued to influence science, while Isaac Newton developed fundamental principles of physics and mathematics, laying groundwork for future scientific revolutions. Cultural life thrived, with John Dryden becoming Poet Laureate in 1670, contributing significantly to literature and drama.

Religious and Social Dynamics

Religious tensions defined the social landscape, particularly the persecution of Catholics and Nonconformists in England, influenced by heightened fears of Catholic conspiracies. The Test Act (1673) barred Catholics and dissenters from public office, deepening religious divisions and tensions.

Legacy of the Era

By 1683, the complex interplay of politics, religion, and expansionism had significantly shaped Northwest Europe. Religious persecution, particularly against Catholics and dissenting Protestants, entrenched societal divisions, while ongoing scientific discoveries provided intellectual progress. The political instability laid foundations for future constitutional and religious transformations, setting the stage for monumental shifts like the Glorious Revolution of 1688.