The Middle East: 52–63 CE

The Roman-Parthian Struggle for Armenia

During this era, the longstanding rivalry between Rome and Parthia over influence in Armenia escalates into open conflict. Although Armenia had remained a Roman client kingdom since the reign of Emperor Augustus, in 52/53 CE the Parthian king Vologases I capitalizes on Roman distraction and successfully installs his brother, Tiridates, on the Armenian throne, challenging Roman regional hegemony.

The timing coincides with the accession of Emperor Nero in 54 CE, who, eager to assert his imperial authority, initiates a vigorous military response. Under the command of the accomplished Roman general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, Rome swiftly defeats Armenian forces loyal to Tiridates. Corbulo's successful campaigns culminate in placing the pro-Roman candidate, Tigranes VI, upon the Armenian throne. Believing their mission accomplished, Roman forces withdraw, leaving behind a seemingly stable client state.

However, internal Parthian disturbances that had initially distracted Vologases are soon resolved, enabling him to redirect his full attention back to Armenia. Renewed conflict ensues, and after a protracted period of inconclusive skirmishes, the Parthians decisively defeat Roman forces at the Battle of Rhandeia in 62 CE.

In the wake of this significant defeat, Rome and Parthia agree to a diplomatic compromise: henceforth, Armenia's king must be a Parthian prince from the Arsacid dynasty, subject to formal approval by the Roman emperor. This arrangement, while acknowledging Parthian influence, preserves Roman prestige and diplomatic involvement in the region.

This conflict marks the first direct Roman-Parthian military confrontation since the disastrous campaign of Crassus in 53 BCE and Mark Antony’s ill-fated invasions nearly a century earlier. It inaugurates a prolonged series of struggles between the two empires for dominance over strategically critical Armenia.

Armenia has been a Roman client state since the days of Emperor Augustus, but in 52/53 the Parthians succeed in installing their own candidate, Tiridates, on the Armenian throne.

These events coincide with the accession of Nero to the imperial throne in Rome, and the young emperor decides to react vigorously.

The war, which is the only major foreign campaign of his reign, begins with rapid success for the Roman forces, led by the able general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo.

They overcome the forces loyal to Tiridates, install their own candidate, Tigranes VI, on the Armenian throne, and leave the country.

The Romans are aided by the fact that the Parthian king Vologases is embroiled in the suppression of a series of revolts in his own country.

As soon as these have been dealt with, however, the Parthians turn their attention to Armenia, and after a couple of years of inconclusive campaigning, inflict a heavy defeat on the Romans in the Battle of Rhandeia.

The conflict ends soon after, in an effective stalemate and a formal compromise: a Parthian prince of the Arsacid line will henceforth sit on the Armenian throne, but his nomination has to be approved by the Roman emperor.

This conflict is the first direct confrontation between Parthia and the Romans since Crassus' disastrous expedition and Mark Antony's campaigns a century earlier, and is the first of a long series of wars between Rome and Iranian powers over Armenia.

Corbulo with his army enters Greater Armenia from Cappadocia in the spring of 58, and advances towards Artaxata, while Pharasmanes I of Iberia attacks from the north and Antiochus IV of Commagene attacks from the southwest.

Supported by his brother, Tiridates sends flying columns to raid the Romans far and wide.

Corbulo retaliates by using the same tactics and employing the Iberian tribes, who raid outlying regions of Armenia.

Tiridates I flees his capital, which Corbulo burns to the ground.

In the summer of this year, Corbulo advances towards Tigranakert through rough terrain and passing through the Taronitida (Taron), where several of his commanders die in an ambush by the Armenian resistance.

However, the city opens its gates, with the exception of one of the citadels, which is destroyed in the ensuing assault.

By this time, the majority of Armenians have abandoned resistance and accepted the Herodian prince favored by Rome.

Nero gives the crown to the last royal descendant of the Kings of Cappadocia, the grandson of Glaphyra (daughter of Archelaus of Cappadocia) and Alexander of Judea (the brother of Herod Archelaus and the son of Herod the Great), who assumes the Armenian name Tigranes (his uncle was Tigranes V).

Nero crowns Tigrans in Rome.

Little is known of his life before becoming king.

Raised in Rome, he had married a Phrygian noblewoman from central Anatolia called Opgalli, who may have been a Hellenic Jew.

His wife is only known through surviving numismatic evidence from his kingship.

Opgalli bore Tigranes at least two known children: a son Gaius Julius Alexander and a daughter Julia.

Tigranes and his children are the last royal descendants of the Kings of Cappadocia.

Nero is hailed vigorously in public for this initial victory, and Corbulo is rewarded with the governorship of Syria.

Border districts are bestowed to Roman allies that had assisted Corbulo, including Polemon, Parasmanes, Aristobolus and Antiochus IV of Commagene.

Nero had given to Tigranes a guard of one thousand legionary soldiers, three auxiliary cohorts and two wings of horses were allotted to him in order to defend and protect Armenia.

At the same time, his son Alexander marries Julia Iotapa, a Commagenean Princess and the daughter of King Antiochus IV of Commagene in Rome.

Nero crowns Alexander and Iotapa as Roman Client Monarchs of Cetis, a small region in Cilicia, which was previously ruled by Antiochus IV.

Vologases had been prevented from attacking the vassal king of Adiabene by an invasion of the eastern nomads, according to Josephus.

At last, a peace is concluded, by which the Parthians sign a treaty with Corbulo acknowledging Tiridates as king of Armenia, but he has to become a vassal of the Romans; he goes to Rome, where Roman emperor Nero gives him back the diadem; from this time forward, an Arsacid dynasty rules in Armenia under Roman supremacy.

Vologases is satisfied with this result, and will honor the memory of Nero (Suetonius Nero, 57).