Near East (729–718 BCE): The Fall of Samaria and Nubian Expansion

The Fall of the Kingdom of Israel

King Hoshea of Israel, encouraged by Egypt, attempts to break free from Assyrian domination. In retaliation, the Assyrian king Shalmaneser V personally leads his forces into Israel in 724 BCE, besieging the Israelite capital, Samaria, and attacking the city of Tyre. After a three-year siege, Samaria falls in 722 BCE. Shalmaneser, however, dies shortly before the capture, and his successor, Sargon II, claims credit for the city's conquest, deporting over twenty-seven thousand inhabitants to Syria—marking the historical disappearance of the "ten lost tribes" of Israel.

Sargon II’s Consolidation

After the capture of Samaria, Sargon II refounds the city as the Assyrian province of Samerina, repopulating it with settlers from Babylon, Cuthah, Avva, Hamath, and Sepharvaim. He also conquers the Philistine city of Gaza, destroys Rafah, and secures a decisive victory against Egyptian forces. However, the Assyrian siege of Tyre, aided by Phoenician mainland cities, ends unsuccessfully after five years, with Assyrian forces withdrawing in 720 BCE.

Nubian Dominance in Egypt

In Egypt, Piye, the ruler of the Nubian kingdom of Kush, exploits internal divisions to extend his influence northward. In response to the alliance formed by Tefnakht of Sais among Delta rulers, Piye launches a successful military campaign in his twentieth regnal year, which he views as a holy war dedicated to Amun. Piye swiftly captures Herakleopolis, Hermopolis, and the ancient capital of Memphis, securing the submission of Delta rulers, including Iuput II of Leontopolis and Osorkon IV of Tanis. Tefnakht ultimately submits indirectly, maintaining nominal independence in Lower Egypt after Piye's withdrawal to Nubia.

Egyptian Fragmentation and Twenty-fourth Dynasty

Following the collapse of Egypt’s Twenty-second Dynasty with the death of Shoshenq V around 720 BCE, Lower Egypt splinters into city-states controlled by local kings. Prominent among these is Tefnakht I, who establishes himself as the "Great Chief of the West" and the founding ruler of Egypt’s short-lived Twenty-fourth Dynasty based in Sais. Although nominally submitting to Piye, Tefnakht soon declares independence and asserts himself as a king.

Legacy of the Era

The era 729–718 BCE witnesses significant shifts in power dynamics in the Near East, marked by the dramatic collapse of the northern Kingdom of Israel under Assyrian conquest and the rise of Nubian authority over a fragmented Egypt. These events reshape regional politics profoundly, setting the stage for ongoing interactions and confrontations among emerging powers, particularly Assyria and the Kushite dynasty in Egypt.

Near East (717–706 BCE): Religious and Political Transformations

Syncretism and the Rise of Samaritan Identity

After the fall of Samaria, its new inhabitants—colonists from diverse parts of the Assyrian Empire—initially worship their own deities. According to later Jewish tradition, when dangerous wild animals infest the region, these colonists appeal to the Assyrian king for priests from Israel to instruct them on how to worship the local god, Yahweh. This leads to the emergence of a syncretistic form of religion, blending the worship of Yahweh with their original gods. Today's Samaritans, who regard themselves as descendants of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, continue to honor the Pentateuch as their sacred scripture and worship at Mount Gerizim. Modern genetic studies confirm Samaritan claims of Israelite lineage through male ancestors, with maternal lines indicating Assyrian and other foreign origins.

Nubian Religious Revival: The Shabaka Stone

During the reign of Pharaoh Shabaka of Egypt’s Nubian Twenty-fifth Dynasty, a significant religious artifact known as the Shabaka Stone is produced. Discovered by Shabaka himself at the temple of Ptah in Memphis, this slab records the deteriorating text of an ancient papyrus. The Shabaka Stone preserves the Memphite Theology, a sophisticated religious doctrine elevating Ptah, god of craftsmen, as the creator of all existence. According to this theology, Ptah conceives all things mentally and brings them into existence by speech—a concept reflecting a high level of abstraction and philosophical sophistication in Egyptian religious thought.

Moab Under Assyrian Influence

Moab, despite linguistic and cultural affinities with its Israelite neighbors, faces religious and political marginalization from Judahite society. This isolation is underscored by scriptural prohibitions (Deuteronomy 23:3-6) and prophetic denunciations (Isaiah 25:10). By the late eighth century BCE, Moab becomes a tributary of Assyria, signaling its integration into the expanding Assyrian sphere of influence.

Religious and Political Reforms in Judah

The fall of the northern kingdom deeply influences the southern kingdom of Judah, prompting religious introspection and political caution. Under King Hezekiah, who succeeds Ahaz in 715 BCE, Judah initiates significant religious reforms aimed at eradicating Canaanite religious practices and reaffirming the worship of Yahweh. These reforms contrast sharply with Ahaz's earlier policies, which had subjected Judah to Assyrian dominance. The prophet Isaiah resumes his activity during this period, addressing Hezekiah’s political efforts to extricate Judah from Assyrian suzerainty, notably during a failed rebellion involving Tyre and Sidon against Sargon II in 710 BCE.

Cyprus and the Assyrian Hegemony

In 709 BCE, Cyprus submits to Assyrian King Sargon II, who consolidates his regional authority by erecting a stela at Citium. Seven Cypriot city-kings—Curium, Paphos, Marion, Soli, Lapithos, Salamis, and Amathus—formally acknowledge his dominance. Subsequent Assyrian records add four more kingdoms—Citium, Kyrenia, Tamassos, and Idalium—to the list of tributary states. Although nominal, this acknowledgment underscores the broad reach of Assyrian imperial power, which extends over Cyprus until approximately 663 BCE.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 717 to 706 BCE is marked by profound transformations in religion and politics across the Near East. The emergence of Samaritan identity, theological innovation in Nubian-controlled Egypt, and Judah’s religious reforms under Hezekiah significantly shape the cultural and political landscape. Meanwhile, Assyria’s expanding influence, exemplified by its dominance over Moab and Cyprus, sets the stage for further imperial entanglements and cultural exchanges in the region.