Samuel bar Abba and Abba Arika, two Babylonian disciples of the Palestinian Jewish patriarch Judah ha-Nasi, begin around 220 to propagate the Mishna and related tannaitic literature as the yardsticks of normative practice.

As heads of new Torah academies, respectively, at Nehardea and …

…Sura, respectively, Samuel and Abba cultivate a native Babylonian rabbinate, which increasingly provides the personnel for local Jewish courts and other communal services.

The Middle East: 232–243 CE

Roman–Sassanid Conflicts and Jewish Legal Developments

The era from 232 to 243 CE marks an intensified phase of conflict between the Roman Empire and the recently established Sassanid Persian Empire under Ardashir I and later his successor, Shapur I. Initially, in 230 CE, Ardashir launches raids into Roman-held Mesopotamia and Syria, boldly demanding Rome’s cession of all territories that once belonged to the Achaemenid Empire.

Roman Emperor Alexander Severus, after unsuccessful diplomatic attempts, responds militarily in 232, eventually repelling the Persian advances. Ardashir, determined and strategic, renews his assaults between 238 and 240, successfully capturing critical cities including Carrhae and Nisibis in Syria and Mesopotamia.

The conflict escalates further under Ardashir's ambitious heir, Shapur I, who initiates a large-scale invasion of Roman Mesopotamia. Shapur's forces, however, suffer a significant defeat in 243 CE near Resaena, allowing the Romans to reclaim Carrhae and Nisibis and temporarily stabilizing their eastern frontier.

Simultaneously, this era witnesses important developments among Babylonian Jews, who recognize Samuel bar Abba (Rav Samuel) as their principal temporal and judicial authority, especially in monetary and civil law. Rav Samuel’s influential rulings—known as responsa—guide dispersed Jewish communities, encouraging adherence to local laws while upholding Jewish traditions. His progressive ordinances notably include prohibitions on marriages without proper courtship and forbid fathers from betrothing daughters without their consent. These rulings significantly shape Jewish social and legal practices, equipping Babylonian Jews with flexible strategies for adapting to life within foreign environments.

Babylonian Jews accept as binding the rulings of Samuel bar Abba, the acknowledged temporal leader of the Jewish community in Babylonia, in monetary and civil matters.

He also instructs Jews to adopt the laws of whichever land they dwell in, thus preparing them for survival in foreign environments.

Rav Samuel is noted for improving moral and intellectual positions through his responsa (ordinances), including a ban on marriage without courtship and forbidding fathers to betroth a daughter without her consent.

These responsa, posed in the form of questions, become a popular way of maintaining contact with dispersed communities of Jews.