A Portuguese scientific expedition in 1877 departs from Luanda, led by Hermenegildo Capelo and Roberto Ivens, two naval officers, and Alexandre Serpa Pinto, an army major, travels to the Biéplateau in central Angola, where they separate.

Serpa Pinto explores the headwaters of the Cuanza River in Angola and follows the course of the Zambezi River to Victoria Falls in present-day Zimbabwe.

Exploring areas now part of South Africa, he crosses the Transvaal and arrives in Natal in 1879.

In 1884 Capelo and Ivens depart from Mocamades on the coast of Angola and cross the continent through entirely unexplored territory, arriving at Quelimane on the east coast of Mozambique in 1885.

In the same year, Serpa Pinto and Augusto Cardoso explore the territory around Lake Nyassa.

Various Portuguese have explored the interior of Mozambique.

Maritime East Africa (1876–1887 CE): European Exploration, Somali Power Shifts, and Colonial Expansion

From 1876 to 1887 CE, Maritime East Africa experiences intensified European exploration and colonization efforts, significant shifts in local political power in Somalia, and deepening European rivalry over strategic island territories and coastal regions.

Portuguese Expeditions into the African Interior

In 1877, Portugal launches a significant scientific expedition from Luanda, led by naval officers Hermenegildo Capelo and Roberto Ivens, accompanied by army major Alexandre Serpa Pinto. The group travels into Angola's interior to the Bié plateau, where they split:

• Serpa Pinto explores the headwaters of Angola's Cuanza River and follows the Zambezi River to Victoria Falls, eventually crossing the Transvaal and reaching Natal in 1879.

• Later, in 1884–1885, Capelo and Ivens traverse previously unexplored territories from the coast of Angola (Mocamades) to Quelimane on Mozambique's east coast.

• Simultaneously, Serpa Pinto and Augusto Cardoso conduct expeditions around Lake Nyassa, significantly enhancing Portuguese geographical knowledge of Mozambique’s interior.

Establishment of German East Africa

In the early 1880s, German adventurer Carl Peters actively seeks colonial acquisitions. After securing treaties with native chiefs opposite Zanzibar, the Society for German Colonization is granted an imperial charter by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck on February 27, 1885. Upon the Sultan of Zanzibar's protest, Bismarck swiftly dispatches a German naval squadron that compels the Sultan's acquiescence, establishing German control over Bagamoyo, Dar es Salaam, and Kilwa.

Return and Rise of Sultan Yuusuf Ali Keenadiid in Somalia

In the 1870s, exiled Somali leader Sultan Yuusuf Ali Keenadiid returns from Arabia with a small contingent of Hadhrami fighters and loyal followers. Utilizing force and strategic alliances, he establishes the new Somali kingdom of Hobyo, subduing local Hawiye clans. Keenadiid’s emergence marks a significant shift in Somali power dynamics, though his rule, along with the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, faces increasing pressure from advancing European colonial interests.

European Competition for Somali Territories

The latter part of this era sees intensified European colonial ambitions in Somalia, driven by strategic interests:

• Britain actively expands its influence from 1884, motivated by the need to secure the northern Somali coast as a supply base (livestock and provisions) for its crucial naval port at Aden, vital for the defense of British India. Major A. Hunter negotiates protection treaties with Somali clans, and British vice-consuls are installed in Berbera, Bullaxaar, and Saylac.

• Italy, seeking colonial expansion, increasingly pushes into southern Somalia, setting the stage for future colonial consolidation.

French Influence in the Comoros

France, already established in Comoros, gradually extends its influence across the archipelago. Although progress is slow, fueled by persistent internal conflicts among local sultans and rivalry with British and German ambitions, France finally secures protectorate agreements with the rulers of Njazidja, Nzwani, and Mwali in 1886. These agreements set the foundation for the eventual formal annexation and administration of Comoros as part of the French colony of Madagascar in the early twentieth century.

Malawi and Mozambique

Portuguese expeditions like those of explorers Serpa Pinto, Capelo, and Ivens underscore increased colonial ambitions across central and northern Mozambique, emphasizing the economic importance of trade routes through Quelimane and the Zambezi Valley. Southern Malawi (Nyasaland) becomes formally a British protectorate in 1889, with Blantyre established as an administrative and commercial capital, firmly integrating Malawi into Britain’s broader colonial framework in East Africa.

Legacy of the Era

Between 1876 and 1887 CE, Maritime East Africa witnesses transformative European exploration, aggressive colonial expansion, strategic shifts in Somali political power, and deepening European rivalries. These complex interactions set the stage for profound regional changes in the late nineteenth century, significantly impacting local autonomy, trade networks, and sociopolitical structures.

Maritime East Africa (1888–1899 CE): Colonial Rivalries, Resistance, and Territorial Transformations

From 1888 to 1899 CE, Maritime East Africa—including the Swahili Coast, Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, and Somali coastal cities—undergoes profound changes driven by intensified European colonial ambitions, local resistance movements, and strategic geopolitical rivalries among European powers.

European Colonial Expansion and Rivalries

European powers increasingly seek territorial dominance along the East African coast during this era. The Imperial British East Africa Company establishes its presence in Kenya by 1888, eventually gaining control from Germany, which had earlier asserted influence over coastal possessions of the Sultan of Zanzibar in 1885. The British solidify their position through significant infrastructure projects, notably the construction of the Uganda Railway, attracting a substantial influx of Indian laborers who remain integral to the region’s demographic and economic fabric.

Germany, under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, expands its reach by establishing the colony of German East Africa in 1885, imposing protectorates through aggressive naval demonstrations. Notable resistance movements against German rule emerge, particularly from the Hehe people, led by Chief Mkwawa, who fiercely resist German colonization between 1891 and 1898, ultimately succumbing due to internal divisions exploited by the Germans.

Madagascar: French Annexation and Resistance

In Madagascar, French colonial ambitions culminate in the declaration of a protectorate over the entire island by 1894. Queen Ranavalona III resists French dominion, triggering violent upheavals and eventually prompting France to forcibly occupy the capital, Antananarivo, in 1895. France officially declares Madagascar a colony in 1896, deporting the queen and imposing strict colonial administration.

Somali Peninsula: Fragmentation and Strategic Interests

The Somali Peninsula experiences strategic partitioning among European and regional powers. Italy, establishing its first footholds in 1888, gradually solidifies its control over southern Somalia, creating Italian Somaliland. Concurrently, Britain consolidates control over northern Somalia (British Somaliland), aiming to safeguard naval interests around Aden. France holds French Somaliland (Djibouti), and Ethiopia, under Emperor Menelik II, extends its influence over the Ogaden, profoundly reshaping regional geopolitics.

Portuguese Efforts and Continued Influence

Portugal renews its territorial ambitions in East Africa, notably attempting expeditions across the continent from Angola to Mozambique. Despite these extensive explorations by figures like Serpa Pinto, Capelo, and Ivens, Portuguese authority struggles to assert full dominance in the hinterlands, though they maintain coastal control, particularly around Mozambique, amidst growing competition from British and German interests.

Comoros: French Protectorates and Internal Fragmentation

The Comoros Islands undergo significant political restructuring under French influence. Protectorate treaties are signed with local rulers in 1886, marking a transitional phase from fragmented independent sultanates towards formal colonial annexation, despite persistent local instability and resistance.

Economic and Social Transformations

Economic activities in the region evolve significantly. Mauritius experiences fluctuations in its sugar economy, while the Seychelles transition to less labor-intensive agriculture after the abolition of slavery, becoming increasingly reliant on imported goods and small-scale trade.

Malawi and Mozambique

In southern Malawi, colonial administration under British control solidifies Blantyre as a critical hub of economic and political activity, further shaped by infrastructural developments and missionary education. Central and northern Mozambique witness aggressive Portuguese colonization, with intensive plantation economies dependent on forced African labor expanding rapidly along the Zambezi River and in coastal settlements such as Beira and Quelimane. Resistance among local communities occasionally erupts, reflecting deep-seated tensions in the region’s colonial experience.

Cultural Resilience and Integration

Throughout this era of colonial encroachment, the Swahili Coast and other regions of Maritime East Africa retain resilient cultural identities, integrating new influences while preserving local customs, languages, and traditions amidst dramatic political and social upheaval.

Legacy of the Era

Between 1888 and 1899 CE, Maritime East Africa witnesses dramatic geopolitical reconfigurations due to European colonial partitioning, vigorous local resistance, and complex economic transitions. These developments establish critical precedents for the region’s twentieth-century trajectories.