Tacitus, Plutarch and Pliny the Elder describe Gaius Petronius as the elegantiae arbiter, "judge of elegance" in the court of the emperor Nero.

After serving as consul in the year CE 62, he has become a member of the senatorial class who devote themselves to a life of pleasure, whose relationship to Nero is apparently akin to that of a fashion advisor.

Petronius is the reputed author of the vivid Satyricon, a robust portrayal of life in first-century CE Rome.

The novel blends prose and verse in recounting the bawdy escapades of the rogue Encolpius who wanders through Rome in search of his lost virility, accompanied by his young friend Giton and the jealous Ascyltus.

The novel’s central section, "Trimalchio's Feast," apparently satirizes the cruel and capricious emperor.

None of the ancient sources give any further detail about his life, or mention that he was a writer.

However a medieval manuscript, written around 1450, of the Satyricon credited a "Titus Petronius" as the author of the original work.

Traditionally this reference is linked with Petronius Arbiter, since the novel appears to have been written or at least set during his lifetime.

The link, however, remains speculative and disputed.

Petronius' development of his characters in the Satyricon, namely Trimalchio, transcends the traditional style of writing of ancient literature.

In the literature written during Petronius' life the emphasis is always on the typical considerations of plot, which had been laid down by classical rules.

The character, which is hardly known in ancient literature, is secondary.

Petronius goes beyond these literary limitations in his exact portrayals of detailed speech, behavior, surroundings, and appearance of the characters.

Another literary device Petronius employs in his novel is a collection of specific allusions.

The allusions to certain people and events are evidence that the Satyricon was written during Nero's time.

These also suggest that it was aimed at a contemporary audience in which a part consisted of Nero's courtiers and even Nero himself.

The message Petronius tries to convey in his work is far from moral and does not intend to produce reform, but is written above all to entertain and should be considered artistically.

As the title implies, the Satyricon is a satire, specifically a Menippean satire, in which Petronius satirizes nearly anything, using his impeccable taste as the only standard.

It is speculated that Petronius' depiction of Trimalchio mirrors that of Nero.

Although we never know the author's own opinion, we see the opinions of the characters in the story and how Encolpius criticizes Trimalchio.

Petronius' high position soon made him the object of envy for those around him.

Having attracted the jealousy of Tigellinus, the commander of the emperor's guard, he was accused of treason.

Arrested at Cumae in 65 CE, but did not wait for a sentence but instead chose to take his own life.

Domitian has apparently been unable to gain support among the aristocracy, despite attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments.

His autocratic style of government has accentuated the Senate's loss of power, while his policy of treating patricians and even family members as equals to all Romans has earned him their contempt.

Domitian’s excesses of the past several years have inspired conspiracies of the sort Domitian had feared in the first place.

He manages to survive them all until September 18, 96, when the autocratic emperor is assassinated under instructions from court officials in the pay of his wife, the Empress Domitilla, in part because of his liaison with his niece, Titus’ daughter Flavia Julia.

After Domitian's assassination, the senators of Rome rush to the Senate house, where they immediately pass a motion condemning his memory to oblivion.

Under the rulers of the successor Nervan-Antonian dynasty, senatorial authors will publish histories that elaborate on the view of Domitian as a tyrant.

The Fasti Ostienses, the Ostian Calendar, records that the same day the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor.

Despite his political experience, this is a remarkable choice.

Nerva is old and childless, and has spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination.

According to Cassius Dio, the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination, suggesting that he was at least aware of the plot.

He does not appear in Suetonius' version of the events, but this may be understandable, since his works were published under Nerva's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian.

To suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder would have been less than sensitive.

On the other hand, Nerva lacks widespread support in the Empire, and as a known Flavian loyalist, his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators.

The precise facts have been obscured by history, but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke.

The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war, but neither appears to have been involved in the conspiracy.

After the election of Nerva by the senate, the new emperor chooses as his co-consul for 97 the elderly Lucius Verginius Rufus, who is enticed out of retirement.

Rufus, after declining his troops’ acclamation of him as emperor after his defeat of Vindex at the beginning of the revolt known as Year of the Four Emperors, has lived calmly for thirty years at his estate at Alsium, on the coast of Etruria, where he studies, composes poems, and has a literary salon.

However, when Rufus is to hold a speech, he drops a book he is carrying, and while bending down to pick it up, slips and breaks his hip.

He dies not long afterward and is given a state funeral.

At the public burial with which he is honored, the historian Tacitus (now consul) delivers the funeral oration.

Pliny the Younger, his neighbor and ward, has recorded the lines which Verginius had ordered to be engraved upon his tomb: Hic situs est Rufus, pulso qui Vindice quondam Imperium asseruit non sibi sed patriae ("Here lies Rufus, who after defeating Vindex, did not take power, but gave it to the fatherland").

As modern medicine has discovered recently, falls by the elderly involving a broken hip are more likely preceded, rather than followed, by the fracture.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (100–111 CE): Trajan’s Ascendancy and Imperial Expansion

The era 100–111 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe marks the beginning of Trajan's rule, inaugurating a new period of vigorous expansion, effective governance, and cultural flourishing. Born in Hispania, Trajan becomes the first emperor from a provincial background, symbolizing the profound integration of Roman provinces into the empire's political core.

Trajan’s Rise and Governance

Following Emperor Nerva’s death in 98 CE, Trajan ascends the throne, initiating a period of notable political stability and military success. Trajan's rule is marked by his pragmatic approach, exceptional administrative skill, and commitment to justice, winning widespread admiration from both the Senate and the populace.

Territorial Expansion and Military Campaigns

Trajan embarks on extensive military campaigns, significantly expanding the empire’s territorial boundaries. His most notable military achievement during this period is the initiation of the Dacian Wars (101–106 CE), aimed at securing Rome’s northern frontier and acquiring the resource-rich province of Dacia (modern-day Romania). These successful campaigns greatly enhance Rome's wealth and security.

Administrative and Economic Reforms

Trajan continues administrative reforms to streamline provincial governance, strengthen legal institutions, and promote efficient taxation systems. These measures further solidify Rome’s imperial stability and contribute to widespread economic prosperity throughout Mediterranean Southwest Europe.

Infrastructure and Urban Development

Trajan significantly invests in infrastructure, constructing roads, bridges, and public works projects throughout the empire. Notably, he initiates the development of monumental projects such as the expansion of the port facilities at Ostia and extensive improvements to the Roman road network, facilitating trade, military logistics, and enhancing urban life.

Cultural and Intellectual Flourishing

Culturally, Trajan’s reign fosters significant intellectual and artistic achievements. His era witnesses sustained literary productivity and artistic innovation, reflecting Rome’s continued cultural dynamism. Prominent figures, such as the historian Pliny the Younger, actively participate in imperial administration, documenting significant events and providing invaluable historical insights into the empire’s functioning.

Economic Prosperity and Trade Networks

Under Trajan, Mediterranean Southwest Europe experiences heightened economic activity. Spain, integral to the Roman economy, continues exporting valuable goods—gold, olive oil, wool, and wine—strengthening trade networks. The sustained prosperity of Iberian cities demonstrates successful provincial integration and economic stability under imperial oversight.

Legacy of the Era

The era 100–111 CE solidifies Trajan’s reputation as one of Rome's greatest emperors, known for territorial expansion, robust governance, and fostering widespread prosperity. His reign profoundly influences Rome’s imperial trajectory, exemplifying the effectiveness of inclusive leadership and strategic governance, laying the groundwork for continued imperial strength and cohesion.

Gaius (or Caius) Plinius Caecilius Secundus, better known as Pliny the Younger, is a remarkable writer.

A maternal nephew of the celebrated author and naturalist Pliny the Elder, he has served the empire as consul (with Cornutus Tertullus, in 100), Propraetor of Bithynia from 103, publicly elected Augur in 103-104, Superintendent for the banks of the Tiber (curator alvei Tiberis) in 104-106, been three times a member of Trajan's judicial council from 104 to 107, and had been made the Emperor's ambassador (legatus Augusti) in Bithynia-Pontus in 110.

Pliny is over fifty in 111 when he becomes governor of Bithynia.

The only oration of Pliny’s that now survives is the Panegyricus Trajani.

Pronounced in the Senate in 100, it is a description of Trajan's figure and actions in an adulatory and emphatic form, especially contrasting him with the much-detested Emperor Domitian.

The largest body of Pliny’s surviving work is his Letters (Epistulae), a series of personal missives directed to his friends and associates.

These letters are a unique testimony of Roman administrative history and everyday life in the first century.

The style is very different from that in the Panegyricus and some commentators affirm that Pliny is the initiator of a new particular genre: the letter written for publication.

In one, not written until 112, he asks the Emperor for instructions over the policy to follow with the Christians; in another, he describes the eruption of the Vesuvius that interred his uncle and to which he attended when he was eighteen years old.

The Epistulae are usually treated as two halves: those in Books 1 to 9, which Pliny had prepared for publication between 100 and 109, and those in Book 10, all of which are written to or by the Emperor Trajan during Pliny's governorship of Bithynia-Pontus, which position he will hold until his sudden death in 113.

This final book is, significantly, not intended for publication.

Trajan has ruled as a civilian emperor in the years since the final Dacian campaign, to the same acclaim as before.

One of his notable acts is the sponsorship of a three-month gladiatorial festival in the great Colosseum in Rome (the precise date of this festival is unknown).

Combining chariot racing, beast fights and close-quarters gladiatorial bloodshed, this gory spectacle reputedly leaves eleven thousand dead (mostly slaves and criminals, plus the thousands of beasts killed alongside them) and attracts a total of five million spectators over the course of the festival.

It is during this time that he corresponds with Pliny the Younger on the subject of how to deal with the Christians of Pontus, telling Pliny to leave them alone unless they are openly practicing the religion.

He builds several new buildings, monuments and roads in Italia and his native Hispania.

His magnificent complex in Rome raised to commemorate his victories in Dacia (and largely financed from that campaign's loot)—consisting of a forum, Trajan's Column, and a shopping center—still stands in Rome today.

He is also a prolific builder of triumphal arches, many of which survive, and rebuilder of roads (Via Traiana and Via Traiana Nova).

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (112–123 CE): Cultural Critique and Societal Reflections

The era 112–123 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe continues under the prosperous and stable rule of Emperor Trajan, highlighting significant cultural, social, and intellectual developments. Notably, the period features critical reflections on Roman society, epitomized by the influential satirical writings of Juvenal.

Juvenal and Roman Satire

During this period, the satirist Juvenal composes his impactful Satire 3, sharply criticizing contemporary Roman society by contrasting it with the moral integrity perceived to have characterized the early Roman Republic. Juvenal’s writings reflect broader societal anxieties, providing incisive commentary on issues of morality, civic responsibility, and political power.

Famous Maxims from Juvenal

Juvenal's satirical works offer enduring maxims that resonate through history, capturing key insights into Roman cultural attitudes and social commentary:

• "Bread and circuses" (panem et circenses): Highlighting public apathy toward civic freedom and moral decline, suggesting that citizens prioritize entertainment and sustenance over liberty and political involvement.

• "A sound mind in a sound body" (mens sana in corpore sano): Emphasizing the ideal balance of physical and mental health, reflecting Roman values on personal well-being and philosophical moderation.

• "A rare bird" (rara avis in terris nigroque simillima cycno): Commenting humorously yet sharply on the difficulty of finding the ideal partner, reflecting prevailing societal skepticism about marital fidelity and idealism.

• "Who will watch the watchers?" (quis custodiet ipsos custodes): Addressing fundamental concerns about accountability, power, and corruption, this maxim questions the reliability and integrity of those entrusted with authority.

Economic Stability and Cultural Prosperity

Economic prosperity persists under Trajan, facilitating continued cultural achievements and supporting extensive intellectual and artistic activities. Hispania, central to Rome’s economy, maintains robust trade networks, contributing significantly to the broader prosperity of Mediterranean Southwest Europe.

Continued Infrastructure and Urban Development

Under Trajan's ongoing reign, infrastructural improvements such as roads, aqueducts, ports, and public buildings continue to enhance the region’s economic vitality and urban livability, reflecting sustained imperial investment in provincial development.

Scientific and Technological Insights

Roman scholars, including Pliny the Younger and contemporaries, continue documenting scientific and medical knowledge. They provide insights into practices such as the use of mercury, antimony, and arsenic-based compounds, illustrating sophisticated Roman understandings of materials and their applications.

Legacy of the Era

The era 112–123 CE is marked by vibrant cultural expression, thoughtful societal critique, and sustained economic and infrastructural growth. Juvenal’s enduring maxims encapsulate Roman society's critical self-awareness, while continued prosperity and development highlight the strengths and complexities of Rome’s imperial system, solidifying Trajan’s legacy and Rome’s broader historical trajectory.

Pliny, as governor of Bithynia et Pontus province to 112, corresponds with the emperor Trajan on such questions as the treatment to be given Christians within the province.

He asks the Emperor for instructions dealing with Christians and explains that he forces Christians to curse Christ under painful torturous inquisition.

Pliny then explains to the Emperor how he questioned suspected Christians by torture and eventually sentenced them to death.

In light of the fact that Christianity is recognized as a sect of Judaism and as a threat to public order, it is therefore likely that, while his knowledge of Christianity itself was largely secondhand, several Christian authors assert he must have known about Jesus's existence first hand, although he could not have been contemporary in time or place.

More important here, however, is the testimony by Pliny that non-Roman suspects be executed for their confession of being Christians.

This indicates that Jesus was worshiped, and that believers of Christ may be put to death for their beliefs, in a short period of the early second century by Roman jurisdiction.

Pliny executed members of what were considered at the time a fanatical cult.

This could lend circumstantial significance to the writings of early Christians.

Being required to “curse Christ” is evidence that Pliny reported this as a means to force reactions of the suspect Christians under torturous inquisition.

Also "a hymn to Christ as to a god" alleges that during that time Jesus had been accepted as both God and man.

Pliny’s ten books of Epistulae, a series of personal missives directed to his friends and associates, provide an informal window into the daily life of a rich and cultured Roman gentleman.