The Near East, 1888 to 1899 CE: British Reconquest of Sudan and Social Transformation in Egypt
Reconquest of Sudan and Defeat of the Mahdiyyah
Following the capture of Khartoum and the death of General Charles Gordon, the Mahdist regime (Mahdiyyah) under Khalifa Abdallahi ibn Muhammad consolidates control in Sudan, enforcing strict Islamic laws and establishing a centralized administration. However, the regime soon encounters economic collapse, famine, and widespread discontent.
In 1892, Herbert Kitchener (later Lord Kitchener) assumes command of the Egyptian army and begins preparations for the reconquest of Sudan, driven by British interests in securing control of the Nile waters and safeguarding Egypt’s irrigation infrastructure, particularly the proposed Aswan dam. By 1896, Kitchener launches the campaign, systematically defeating Mahdist forces at strategic locations, notably at Dongola, Atbarah, and eventually at the decisive Battle of Omdurman on September 2, 1898. The battle is overwhelmingly one-sided: about eleven thousand Mahdists perish compared to fewer than five hundred Anglo-Egyptian casualties.
Organized resistance in Sudan collapses completely following the Khalifa’s death at Umm Diwaykarat in November 1899. Sudan’s economy and population had already been devastated by warfare, famine, and disease during Mahdist rule, leaving the country severely weakened and its traditional social institutions disrupted.
Establishment of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium
In January 1899, the Anglo-Egyptian Agreement formally establishes joint British-Egyptian authority, known as the Condominium, over Sudan. Although the agreement ostensibly shares governance between Britain and Egypt, in practice, Britain holds dominant authority, appointing the Governor-General of Sudan and controlling critical administrative decisions. The first Governor-General under this arrangement, following Kitchener, is Sir Reginald Wingate.
British officials hold top administrative positions, Egyptian officials assume middle ranks, and Sudanese gradually occupy lower administrative posts. The Condominium structure allows Britain to maintain strategic control over Sudan and its resources while nominally preserving Egypt’s administrative involvement.
Societal Transformations and Urbanization in Egypt
At the close of the nineteenth century, Egypt undergoes significant urbanization and demographic changes. The urban population grows dramatically, driven primarily by rural-to-urban migration. Cities like Alexandria expand significantly due to their roles as commercial and financial hubs, particularly in cotton trading. New urban centers such as Az Zaqaziq and Port Said also emerge.
This urban growth coincides with the rise of a new, secularly educated middle class known as the effendiyah, who staff an expanding government bureaucracy. The effendiyah often come from families of rural notables (umada), transitioning to urban life and benefiting from educational and employment opportunities. Conversely, the traditional middle class, including the ulama (religious scholars) and merchants, declines due to the erosion of their economic foundations and the shift toward secular, Western-influenced institutions.
Changing Social Structures and Foreign Influence
The influx of European settlers and merchants, drawn by Egypt’s booming cotton economy, profoundly reshapes the social and economic landscape. Foreign residents benefit disproportionately from trade privileges under the Ottoman-era capitulations, dominating key economic sectors such as cotton exports, banking, and finance. This marginalizes Egyptian merchants, restricting them largely to domestic trade.
Simultaneously, Egypt’s artisan class declines sharply under competition from cheaper European manufactured imports. Traditional crafts and urban guild structures deteriorate significantly, with artisans frequently forced into poverty or unemployment.
Regional Dynamics and Emerging Tensions
Elsewhere in the region, the Ottoman Empire establishes small colonies of Circassian refugees in present-day Jordan, reflecting broader demographic shifts and imperial strategies. Concurrently, attempts at Jewish colonization in Palestine, notably backed by Baron Rothschild beginning in 1894, meet strong resistance from the local Arab population and restrictive Ottoman land laws.
Legacy of the Era: Imperial Consolidation and Social Upheaval
The era from 1888 to 1899 witnesses critical British imperial consolidation in Sudan through military reconquest and strategic administrative control under the Condominium arrangement. Concurrently, Egypt experiences profound socioeconomic transformations, including significant urbanization, the rise of a new bureaucratic middle class, and increasing foreign economic dominance. These developments lay the foundations for future nationalistic resistance and sociopolitical movements across the Near East.
