The Middle East: 1624–1635 CE

Rise of the Yarubids and the Liberation of Oman

In 1624, the Yarubid dynasty emerges in Oman, marking the end of a brief restoration of Nabhani rule that had begun around 1600. Imam Nasir bin Murshid bin Sultan al-Ya'aruba (r. 1624–1649), a member of the Ya'rub tribe, is elected to lead the newly founded Yarubid imamate—Oman's fifth. Under his rule, Oman unifies its fragmented tribes with the goal of expelling the Portuguese, who have occupied Muscat since 1508, fortifying the city to protect their vital sea lanes.

Imam Nasir relocates the capital to Nizwa, an ancient center of Ibadi authority, strengthening his legitimacy. His forces achieve key victories, retaking towns and fortresses from Portuguese control. In 1633, the Omani army liberates Julfar (modern Ras al-Khaimah). These efforts coincide strategically with English attacks on Portuguese holdings, collectively weakening Portuguese dominance and contributing to a significant shift in regional power dynamics.

Fakhr al-Din II’s Expansion and Ottoman Reaction

In Mount Lebanon, Emir Fakhr al-Din II ibn Maan continues to consolidate and expand his authority, fostering religious tolerance and economic prosperity. His openness to European influences, particularly from Tuscany, introduces advanced agricultural methods and new industries, significantly enhancing the region’s economy.

However, Fakhr al-Din's growing autonomy and foreign alliances alarm the Ottoman authorities. Sultan Murad IV (r. 1623–1640) sees Fakhr al-Din’s semi-independent emirate as a threat to Ottoman sovereignty. By 1633, tensions escalate, and the Ottoman Empire prepares to assert its dominance over Mount Lebanon more forcefully.

Ottoman–Safavid Conflict and Baghdad’s Strategic Importance

The ongoing rivalry between the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia persists, particularly over the crucial city of Baghdad. The Safavid ruler Shah Abbas I (r. 1588–1629) defends Baghdad effectively until his death in 1629, after which internal weaknesses emerge under his successor, Shah Safi (r. 1629–1642).

Recognizing the Safavid vulnerability, Ottoman Sultan Murad IV renews military offensives. By 1635, Murad IV personally leads Ottoman forces into Persian territories, initiating preparations to reclaim Baghdad, reinforcing the city’s symbolic and strategic significance in the Ottoman–Safavid conflict.

Cultural and Economic Flourishing in Isfahan and Aleppo

Isfahan remains a vibrant cultural and artistic hub, continuing significant architectural projects under Shah Abbas I and his successor, Shah Safi. Major construction efforts maintain Isfahan’s role as a center of Safavid cultural and political power.

Meanwhile, Aleppo continues to flourish economically under Ottoman rule, serving as a critical commercial link between Europe and the Middle East. Its markets attract European merchants eager for textiles, spices, and luxury goods, strengthening economic ties and facilitating cultural exchanges between East and West.

Legacy of the Era

The period between 1624 and 1635 is marked by notable geopolitical changes: the Yarubid dynasty significantly alters the power structure in Oman, expelling Portuguese colonial forces; Fakhr al-Din II’s independent policies challenge Ottoman supremacy, prompting a decisive imperial response; and the renewed Ottoman–Safavid rivalry underscores Baghdad’s centrality in Middle Eastern geopolitics. Collectively, these developments reshape regional dynamics, setting the stage for future conflicts and alliances.

The Middle East: 1636–1647 CE

Yarubid Consolidation and Expulsion of the Portuguese

Under Imam Nasir bin Murshid al-Ya'aruba, the Yarubid dynasty further consolidates power and continues its mission to expel Portuguese colonial forces from Oman. In 1643, the Yarubid forces achieve a major victory by retaking the strategically vital fortress of Sohar. This victory significantly undermines Portuguese control along the Arabian coast, effectively ending their dominance in the region and solidifying Omani independence. Nasir’s efforts not only unify the tribes internally but also enhance Oman’s maritime capabilities and regional influence.

Fall of Fakhr al-Din II and Ottoman Reassertion in Lebanon

In Mount Lebanon, Emir Fakhr al-Din II ibn Maan faces intensified pressure from the Ottoman Empire. Despite his previous diplomatic successes and economic reforms, Fakhr al-Din's autonomy is perceived as intolerable by Sultan Murad IV. In 1636, Ottoman forces decisively defeat Fakhr al-Din, capturing and imprisoning him in Istanbul, where he is executed in 1635. His fall ends a notable period of relative autonomy and prosperity in Mount Lebanon, reasserting Ottoman dominance.

Ottoman–Safavid War and the Recapture of Baghdad

The Ottoman–Safavid conflict continues to rage, centered around control of the crucial city of Baghdad. In 1638, Sultan Murad IV leads a massive military campaign against Safavid forces. After a fierce siege lasting several months, Ottoman forces successfully recapture Baghdad, which has been under Persian control since 1623. This victory marks a significant triumph for the Ottomans, restoring Baghdad’s strategic and symbolic importance to their empire and delivering a major setback to Safavid ambitions.

Cultural Patronage and Urban Flourishing

Isfahan continues to be a major cultural and political center under the Safavid dynasty, despite their recent setbacks. Architectural and artistic patronage remains robust, and Isfahan's grandeur as a capital city persists.

Aleppo, meanwhile, maintains its position as an important economic hub connecting Europe and the Middle East, despite broader regional conflicts. Its markets continue to thrive, drawing merchants interested in textiles, spices, and luxury items, ensuring sustained economic growth and cultural exchange.

Legacy of the Era

The period 1636–1647 witnesses substantial geopolitical shifts: the Yarubid dynasty solidifies its rule in Oman and ends Portuguese dominance; the execution of Fakhr al-Din II reasserts Ottoman control in Lebanon; and the Ottoman recapture of Baghdad reestablishes their dominance over a crucial strategic location. Together, these events reshape the political landscape of the Middle East, establishing a foundation for future power dynamics in the region.

The Middle East: 1648–1659 CE

Strengthening of the Yarubid Dynasty

Imam Sultan bin Saif al-Ya'aruba, successor to Nasir bin Murshid, continues the consolidation of Yarubid power in Oman and further asserts Omani naval dominance in the region. In 1650, Sultan bin Saif achieves a landmark victory by successfully capturing Muscat from Portuguese control. This decisive action fully expels Portuguese colonial power from Oman's shores, ending their nearly century-and-a-half occupation. The Yarubid dynasty further expands its maritime influence, reinforcing its status as a major power in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean.

Ottoman Stability and Administrative Reforms

The Ottoman Empire, under Sultan Mehmed IV, witnesses a period of relative stability and internal administrative reform after decades of conflict. The restoration of Ottoman authority in regions such as Iraq and Lebanon brings about enhanced governance and economic recovery. In Baghdad, Ottoman administrators work to restore the city's commercial vitality and cultural prominence, investing in urban infrastructure and trade routes, which bolsters economic ties throughout the empire.

Safavid Cultural and Economic Flourishing

Under the Safavid dynasty, particularly during the reign of Shah Abbas II (1642–1666), Iran experiences significant cultural and economic prosperity despite ongoing geopolitical tensions. Isfahan remains the jewel of the empire, with its magnificent architecture, grand bazaars, and vibrant artistic communities. Abbas II promotes commerce and industry, fostering trade along the Silk Road and encouraging European and Asian merchants to frequent Safavid markets, thus ensuring continued economic growth.

Continued Trade and Cultural Exchange in Aleppo

Aleppo maintains its critical role as a commercial and cultural hub, bridging trade between Europe and the Middle East. Despite occasional disruptions due to regional conflicts, the city's markets thrive with an extensive network of trade routes and merchant communities. Textiles, spices, and luxury goods continue to circulate, solidifying Aleppo's reputation as a prosperous economic center.

Legacy of the Era

The era 1648–1659 sees the Yarubids fully establish Oman as an independent maritime power, marking the definitive end of Portuguese colonial ambitions in the region. Concurrently, the Ottoman Empire experiences internal stability and administrative strengthening, while the Safavid Empire continues its cultural and economic expansion under Shah Abbas II. Together, these developments underscore a period of relative prosperity and significant geopolitical realignment across the Middle East.