Ramiro I’s Failed Repopulation of León and the Muslim Counterattack (846 CE)

While King Ramiro I of Asturias seeks to repopulate León, his most significant military confrontation with the Muslim emirates of Iberia proves unsuccessful.

At the same time, Emir Abd ar-Rahman II of Córdoba is occupied with other pressing threats, including:

• Viking invasions, which had reached Lisbon and Seville, and
• Internal rebellions, particularly those led by Musa ibn Musa of the Banu Qasi family, a powerful Muladi(Muslim of Iberian descent) ruler in the Ebro Valley.

Seizing the opportunity, Ramiro resettles León, attempting to reclaim and secure an area that had been left largely uninhabited for nearly a century.

The Desert of the Duero and the Christian-Muslim Frontier

During the reign of Alfonso I of Asturias (739–757), Christian forces had successfully retaken Galicia, La Rioja, and León through a series of military campaigns. However, rather than holding these lands, they had evacuated much of the population to the north, leaving a vast, largely uninhabited buffer zone between Christian Asturias and Muslim Al-Andalus, known as the Desert of the Duero.

For nearly a century, this depopulated region had served as a natural barrier, discouraging large-scale invasions. But Ramiro’s attempt to resettle León brings renewed Muslim attention to the frontier.

The Muslim Counterattack and the Destruction of León (846 CE)

By 846 CE, Emir Abd ar-Rahman II has dealt with both Viking raiders and internal revolts. With his rule stabilized, he dispatches an army led by his son and future successor, Muhammad I of Córdoba.

The Muslim forces quickly overwhelm León, forcing the Asturian settlers to evacuate. After reclaiming the city, the Muslims burn León to the ground, ensuring that it remains uninhabited for another decade.

León’s Later Resettlement

The city is not permanently reoccupied until 856 CE, under the reign of King Ordoño I of Asturias, when the Asturians once again attempt to consolidate their presence in the region.

Ramiro I’s short-lived repopulation effort underscores the continued fragility of the Christian-Muslim frontier and the long struggle to reclaim the Duero Valley, which remains a contested zone well into the 10th century.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (856–867 CE): Muladi and Mozarab Revolts, and Umayyad Instability

The era 856–867 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is characterized by significant internal unrest in Al-Andalus under Emir Muhammad I, involving revolts by Muladi and Mozarab populations, and continuing complex relationships among Iberian political entities.

Muladi and Mozarab Revolts under Muhammad I

The reign of Córdoba-born Umayyad Emir Muhammad I (r. 852–886 CE) is marked by widespread revolts among the Muladi (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) and Mozarabs (Christians living in Muslim-majority areas). Dissatisfied with the central authority, these groups express their discontent through numerous uprisings, reflecting the ongoing ethnic and religious tensions within Al-Andalus.

Musa ibn Musa and the Banu Qasi Revolt

Prominent among the rebels are the Banu Qasi, a powerful Muladi family led by Musa ibn Musa, governor of Zaragoza. Musa notably allies with the Arista family, rulers of the neighboring Christian Kingdom of Navarre, openly defying Córdoba’s authority. He audaciously proclaims himself the "third king of Spain," challenging both Emir Muhammad I of Córdoba and King Ordoño I of Asturias, illustrating the complex interplay of alliances and rivalries across religious and political boundaries.

Lucena and Jewish Cultural Influence

Meanwhile, Lucena continues to thrive as the cultural center of Andalusian Jewry, recognized for its unique all-Jewish character during the Muslim period. Jewish communities, particularly in Lucena, maintain significant roles in scholarship, commerce, and intercultural exchange, contributing greatly to the rich cultural tapestry of Al-Andalus.

Continued Carolingian Fragmentation and Italian Stability

In Italy, the Carolingian political landscape remains fragmented following the Treaty of Verdun (843 CE), though relative stability endures in territories ruled by Lothair I and his successors. The papacy sustains its central role as a stabilizing influence, fostering cultural continuity and maintaining diplomatic connections across fragmented Carolingian territories.

Economic and Technological Continuity

Technological developments, notably the widespread use of the Catalan forge, continue to underpin regional economic stability. Enhanced iron production supports improvements in agriculture, military capacity, and urban development, further sustaining prosperity and growth across Mediterranean Southwest Europe.

Legacy of the Era

The era 856–867 CE highlights critical ethnic, religious, and political tensions within Al-Andalus, marked by Muladi and Mozarab revolts against Umayyad rule. Simultaneously, the region's ongoing cultural vibrancy and economic stability continue to shape its dynamic medieval trajectory.

Several revolts and separatists movements of the Muladi (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) and Mozarabs (Christians living in the Muslim-majority areas) mark the reign of Cordoba-born Umayyad Emir Muhammad I.

The Banu Qasi Muladi family, led by Musa ibn Musa, the governor of Zaragoza, had allied with the Arista family of the Kingdom of Navarre, rebels, proclaiming himself "third king of Spain" (after Muhammad and Ordoño I of Asturias).

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (868–879 CE): Artistic Developments in Italy and Continued Andalusian Complexity

The era 868–879 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is marked by significant artistic innovation in Italy, continued internal unrest within Al-Andalus, and vibrant cultural interactions across the region.

Artistic Innovations in Italian Wall Painting

During this period, Italian artists make notable advances in mural painting, particularly in the representation of the human figure. Painters develop intricate systems of white highlighting, enhancing visual depth and realism. Exemplary works from around 870 CE include the depiction of the Harrowing of Hell in the lower church of San Clemente, as well as murals in the Temple of Fortuna Virile in Rome. These artistic advancements reflect a broader ninth-century cultural revival in Italy, bridging classical traditions and medieval artistic sensibilities.

Persistent Muladi and Mozarab Unrest in Al-Andalus

In Al-Andalus, internal instability continues under Emir Muhammad I (r. 852–886 CE). Muladi and Mozarab populations remain restive, frequently challenging central Umayyad authority. Local leaders and powerful families, such as the Banu Qasi, maintain alliances and rivalries, perpetuating complex political dynamics throughout Iberia.

Lucena and Jewish Cultural Vitality

The city of Lucena continues as a significant Jewish cultural center, maintaining its distinctive identity within Al-Andalus. Lucena's intellectual and scholarly life flourishes, further solidifying its reputation as a beacon of Andalusian Jewry and an influential hub of Jewish thought and learning.

Carolingian Stability Amid Fragmentation

Italy remains relatively stable politically under fragmented Carolingian rule, with continued influence from the papacy. Although broader imperial unity remains elusive, regional governance and ecclesiastical leadership sustain societal cohesion and intellectual life, particularly through interactions with the Byzantine East and Frankish realms.

Economic Continuity and Technological Advancements

Technological developments, especially the widespread use of the Catalan forge, continue to drive economic prosperity and stability. Enhanced iron production supports agricultural expansion, military preparedness, and urban craftsmanship, underpinning ongoing regional prosperity.

Legacy of the Era

The era 868–879 CE highlights notable artistic achievements in Italy, continuing political complexity in Al-Andalus, and vibrant cultural exchanges facilitated by Jewish and Mozarab communities. These developments contribute richly to Mediterranean Southwest Europe's dynamic medieval heritage.

The rebel Umayyad officer Ibn Marwan, leading a host of Muladis and Mozarabs, had returned to Mérida and rebelled against Emir Muhammad I of Córdoba in 868 After a heroic resistance of several years, he had received honorable terms of surrender from the Emir.

Muhammad orders the walls of Mérida destroyed, but awards to Ibn Marwan …

…the territory surrounding Badajoz, which he either founds or re-founds, and begins to fortify.

Ibn Marwan, hearing of an impending attack by the Emirate forces, had fled northwards from Badajoz,settling in the castle of Karkar (now Carquere, near present Lamego, Portugal).

Afterwards, at Ibn Marwân's request, King Alfonso III of Asturias had sent him auxiliary troops and the combined army had defeated the Emirate forces.

Returning to Badajoz, now a well fortified city, he establishes his rule throughout the whole of the Al'Garb Al'Andalus, "The West", the name given by the Moors of Iberia to the modern region of Algarve and, by extension, to most of Portugal, during their rule of the territory.

Ibn Marwan and the Founding of Marvão (876–877 CE)

Between 876 and 877 CE, the rebel leader Ibn Marwan constructs a fortified stronghold in present-day Portugal, which later becomes known as the Castle of Marvão.

By the 10th century, the site is referred to as Amaia de Ibn Maruán or Fortaleza de Amaia, reflecting both its strategic importance and its connection to Ibn Marwan, a leader known for defying the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba and establishing semi-independent territories in western Iberia.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (880–891 CE): Andalusian Unrest, Carolingian Fragmentation, and Cultural Continuity

The era 880–891 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is characterized by ongoing internal unrest within Umayyad Al-Andalus, further fragmentation within Carolingian Italy, and sustained cultural vitality driven by religious and intellectual communities.

Internal Conflict and Muladi Rebellions in Al-Andalus

Under Emir Muhammad I (until 886 CE) and his successor Al-Mundhir (r. 886–888 CE), Al-Andalus continues experiencing significant internal unrest. Muladi (Muslims of Iberian descent) rebellions persist, reflecting widespread discontent with central Umayyad authority. Local dynasties, including the influential Banu Qasi family in Zaragoza, maintain a semi-independent stance, contributing to a climate of political instability.

Carolingian Fragmentation and Italian Autonomy

In Italy, Carolingian political authority further fragments following the death of Charles the Fat in 888 CE, leading to increased regional autonomy under local nobles. This fragmentation marks the decline of unified imperial control, reinforcing the political complexity that defines Italian territories in subsequent decades. Despite this, regional stability and cultural continuity persist, supported by strong ecclesiastical leadership.

Intellectual and Artistic Flourishing in Rome

Rome continues as a prominent center of intellectual life, benefiting from sustained cultural exchanges with the Byzantine East and Frankish courts. Artistic advancements, notably in wall painting, continue to evolve, exemplified by the sophisticated use of white highlighting techniques, as seen in contemporary Roman churches and monuments. Such artistic developments underscore Rome’s ongoing cultural and intellectual significance during this era.

Lucena’s Continued Jewish Cultural Leadership

In Iberia, the city of Lucena maintains its reputation as the center of Andalusian Jewry, reinforcing its position as an intellectual and religious hub. The city continues attracting scholars and students from across the Islamic world, further enriching its vibrant Jewish cultural life.

Economic Stability and Technological Progress

The regional economy benefits from continued advancements in technology, notably through widespread use of the Catalan forge. This enhanced iron production significantly boosts agricultural productivity, military readiness, and urban craftsmanship, providing a firm foundation for regional economic stability and growth.

Legacy of the Era

The era 880–891 CE highlights persistent political unrest in Al-Andalus, Carolingian fragmentation in Italy, and enduring cultural vitality driven by artistic innovations, Jewish intellectual life, and sustained economic progress. These developments collectively shape the diverse historical trajectory of Mediterranean Southwest Europe during the late ninth century.

Al-Mundhir, born in Córdoba, commands the military operations against the neighboring Christian kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions during the reign of his father Muhamad bin Abd al-Rahman.

He had led the partially failed campaign against King Ordoño I of Asturias, in the Duero valley, in 865.

On his way back to Córdoba, he had defeated at Burgos Rodrigo, count of Castile, pushing the Cordoban frontier northwards in Iberia.

He had also tried to conquer León, but had been defeated in 878 at Valdemora, by king Alfonso III of Asturias.

He launches an expedition in 883 against the Banu Qasi Muladi family, who had allied with Alfonso III, but is again defeated.