The Middle East: 585–574 BCE

Nebuchadnezzar's Babylonian Renaissance

Following the devastation of Babylon through repeated rebellions and conflicts with Assyrian rulers like Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal, Nebuchadnezzar II (r. ca. 605–562 BCE), one of the most renowned rulers of the Chaldean Dynasty, continues extensive restoration and reconstruction efforts begun by his father, Nabopolassar. Nebuchadnezzar seeks to transform Babylon into a city of unparalleled magnificence, surpassing even the grandeur of his military achievements. The city is fortified by a triple line of walls and divided by the Euphrates River, crossed by a robust bridge supported by streamlined, asphalt-covered brick piers designed to resist erosion.

Among his grand architectural projects are numerous temples dedicated to the Babylonian pantheon, the lavish royal palace finished with cedar-wood, bronze, gold, silver, and precious stones, and the legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon, reputedly built for his Median wife, Queen Amytis, to ease her homesickness. Babylon's splendor is further adorned by the famed Ishtar Gate, part of a museum housing the trophies of Nebuchadnezzar’s conquests.

Prophetic Voices and Literary Developments

This era also witnesses significant developments in religious and literary traditions. The Hebrew prophet Jeremiah, active during this tumultuous period, preaches from Anathoth, near Jerusalem. Jeremiah advocates for moral reform, repentance, and a renewed relationship between humanity and God amid the Babylonian conquest of Judah. His deeply personal reflections, known as the "confessions of Jeremiah," appear in the first 25 chapters of the Biblical Book of Jeremiah, revealing the prophet's inner spiritual struggles. Jeremiah's prophecies and historical accounts significantly influence later biblical literature, notably the composition of the Deuteronomistic History found in the Hebrew scriptures.

Median-Lydian Rivalry and Diplomacy

In the same period, tension escalates between the Median Empire, under Cyaxares, and Lydia, under King Alyattes, triggered by territorial ambitions and personal animosity. The conflict culminates at the Battle of the Halys River (also called the Battle of the Eclipse) on May 28, 585 BCE. This encounter abruptly ends when a solar eclipse frightens both armies into believing it to be an omen from the gods. Negotiations, mediated by Babylonia and the Cilician kings, result in peace: the Halys River becomes the official boundary, and Alyattes’s daughter, Aryenis, marries Cyaxares's son, Astyages, sealing the treaty through marriage.

Astyages and the Median-Persian Dynamics

Astyages ascends the Median throne in 585 BCE upon his father Cyaxares's death. He inherits a vast empire stretching from western Iran into Anatolia, managing it alongside his two powerful brothers-in-law—Croesus of Lydia and Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. Astyages strengthens Median control over Persia by subjugating various Iranian tribes. To further secure political alliances, Astyages arranges for his daughter, Mandane, to marry the Persian prince Cambyses I, a notable but politically unambitious figure from the minor Persian kingdom of Anshan.

This era, from 585 to 574 BCE, thus marks a period of significant political realignments, extensive cultural achievements, and religious introspection, shaping the historical trajectory of the Middle East profoundly.

The Middle East: 573–562 BCE

Nebuchadnezzar’s Final Campaigns and Legacy

Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the Judahite exile of 586 BCE, the dispersed community begins emphasizing religious rituals and laws to preserve their identity outside their homeland. Practices such as circumcision, Sabbath observance, dietary restrictions, and cleanliness laws become vital for maintaining cohesion among the scattered Judahites.

After concluding a prolonged thirteen-year siege of Tyre (585–572 BCE) in a negotiated compromise, Nebuchadnezzar II turns his attention toward Egypt. A cuneiform tablet records Nebuchadnezzar’s campaign against Pharaoh Amasis, although the outcome appears indecisive.

The Architectural Grandeur of Babylon

In the twilight of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar focuses extensively on the architectural revival of Babylon. His construction projects are monumental and lavish, including temples, canals, reservoirs, aqueducts, and a remarkable triple line of defensive walls. He also restores Sippar’s Lake and builds a strategic port on the Persian Gulf, significantly enhancing Babylon’s infrastructure and defenses.

Notable among his grand constructions is the legendary Ishtar Gate, which, along with various trophies of war, adorns Babylon. The famed Hanging Gardens, built for his Median queen Amytis, stand as a testament to the opulence of Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon, designed specifically to evoke the lush landscapes of her Median homeland.

Prophecy and Historical Literature

This period witnesses the flourishing of Hebrew prophetic literature. The prophet Jeremiah, residing near Jerusalem, continues to advocate moral reform, repentance, and a profound renewal of spiritual commitment amid ongoing crises. His introspective and deeply spiritual "confessions" influence significantly the Hebrew scriptures. During these years, a significant portion of the Deuteronomistic History, including the narrative found in the Book of Kings, is likely finalized, embedding Jeremiah’s theological perspectives into the historical narrative of Israel and Judah.

Diplomatic Realignments in Media and Lydia

Following the Battle of Halys and the subsequent peace treaty mediated by Babylon and Cilicia, Astyages ascends the Median throne in 585 BCE. His reign solidifies Median dominance in the Iranian plateau, including Persian territories. To reinforce political stability, Astyages arranges the marriage of his daughter Mandane to Cambyses I, a Persian noble from the kingdom of Anshan. Cambyses, known for his peaceful and diplomatic demeanor, strengthens Median-Persian ties significantly.

Thus, the era from 573 to 562 BCE consolidates significant religious, cultural, and political developments, marking the apex of Nebuchadnezzar’s architectural legacy and signaling pivotal shifts in the geopolitical and religious landscapes of the Middle East.

The Middle East: 561–550 BCE

Colonization and Expansion in Anatolia

Around 560–558 BCE, Megarian colonists establish Heraclea Pontica (modern Ereğli) on the Black Sea coast, named after the legendary Greek hero Heracles. The colony quickly expands its influence, subjugating the indigenous Mariandynians, who become helot-like serfs with the protection of not being sold into foreign slavery. Benefiting from fertile lands and abundant fisheries, Heraclea Pontica grows prosperous, extending its territorial control eastward along the coast to Cytorus (near modern Cide).

Rise of Cyrus the Great

In 559 BCE, Cyrus, son of Cambyses, becomes ruler of the Persian district of Anshan under Median overlordship. Cyrus, reportedly a descendant of Median king Astyages through his mother, initially rules as a subordinate prince. The expansive Median Empire, under Astyages, encompasses vast territories from Anatolia to the Iranian plateau.

Dissatisfaction with Astyages’ rule motivates a revolt in 553 BCE, led by Cyrus with crucial support from the Median general Harpagus. Following several inconclusive battles, a pivotal mutiny within the Median forces facilitates Cyrus’ entry into the Median capital Ecbatana in 549 BCE. Astyages is captured, but spared, and Cyrus transfers the royal treasury to his capital at Susa. This victory effectively dismantles the Median Empire, marking the ascendance of Cyrus and the rise of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

Developments in Babylon and Hebrew Literature

Babylon experiences internal shifts during this era. King Nabonidus, largely preoccupied with antiquarian and religious interests, becomes increasingly unpopular with the Babylonian priesthood. In response, Nabonidus elevates his son, Belshazzar, to the role of co-regent around 550 BCE. Meanwhile, in Judahite communities living in exile in Babylon, substantial religious and literary developments occur. Around 550 BCE, priestly sources contribute significantly to the final compilation of the Torah. Concurrently, key biblical texts, including the Book of Joshua and the Books of Kings, undergo editing and expansion.

Thus, this era witnesses transformative geopolitical shifts with the rise of Cyrus, significant colonial expansions in Anatolia, and crucial religious and literary developments among the exiled Judahite communities in Babylon, profoundly influencing the future political and cultural landscape of the Middle East.