Near East (573–562 BCE): Diplomatic Realignments and Power Shifts

Naukratis and Greek Influence in Egypt

The Ionian city of Miletus had earlier founded Naukratis, a prominent Greek settlement in Egypt’s Nile Delta. By this period, Greeks from various city-states have also settled here, creating a dynamic cultural and commercial hub. As an emporion, or exclusive trading station, Naukratis becomes a pivotal center for Greek-Egyptian interactions, significantly influencing cultural relations in the pre-Hellenistic Mediterranean. To manage Greek influence more carefully, Egyptian Pharaoh Amasis II (reigned 570–526 BCE) confines all Greek merchants to Naukratis, southwest of his capital, strengthening Egyptian control over foreign trade.

Turmoil and Diplomacy in Cyrene

In neighboring Libya, the prosperous Greek colony of Cyrene sees its harmonious Greek-Libyan relations disrupted around 570 BCE due to increased immigration of Greek settlers and internal factional disputes under King Battus III. Conflict escalates, resulting in Cyrene repulsing an Egyptian invasion around the same year. However, this hostility transitions into diplomacy: Pharaoh Amasis II successfully forges an alliance with Cyrene by marrying Ladice, daughter of King Battus, consolidating Egyptian influence and mitigating tensions along Egypt’s western border.

Amasis II’s Rise and Egypt’s Resurgence

Previously a victorious Egyptian general under Pharaoh Psamtik II, Amasis II ascends the throne following a rebellion against Pharaoh Apries (Wahibre), who had disastrously mismanaged conflicts in Libya and internal military tensions. In 570 BCE, Egyptian native soldiers, suspecting betrayal by Apries, rally around Amasis. Following Apries’ defeat and exile, he returns with Babylonian support in 567 BCE but is likely killed in battle against Amasis’ forces. To legitimize his reign further, Amasis marries Apries’ daughter, Chedebnitjerbone II, becoming Egypt's uncontested ruler.

Egypt’s Mediterranean Ambitions and Greek Alliances

Under Amasis, Egypt asserts control over Cyprus around 570 BCE, with the island’s kingdoms formally recognizing him as their overlord. Cypriot art and statuary from this period frequently mirror Egyptian conventions, showcasing Egypt’s wide cultural influence. Amasis diligently cultivates strong alliances within the Greek world, making significant diplomatic gestures, including financial support for the reconstruction of the temple at Delphi. His friendly relations extend notably to Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, and to Croesus, the wealthy king of Lydia.

Nebuchadnezzar II and Babylonian Constraints

Meanwhile, Babylon, under King Nebuchadnezzar II, attempts to challenge Egyptian ascendancy. In the fourth year of Amasis’ reign (ca. 567 BCE), Nebuchadnezzar leads a military campaign against Egypt. This assault fails, forcing the Babylonians to retreat and redirect their energies to stabilizing their vast empire. The unsuccessful invasion underscores Egypt’s resilience and the limitations of Babylonian military capabilities at the empire's farthest reaches.

Edomite and Nabataean Movements in Jordan

The weakening of Judah following the Babylonian captivity provides a political vacuum in the region now known as Jordan. As Edomites increasingly relocate into southern Palestine—where they will later become known as Idumaeans in Roman times—an Arabian people, the Nabataeans, begin moving into traditional Edomite territory. Nabataean inscriptions gradually appear, signaling shifting settlement patterns and foreshadowing the rise of Nabataea as a regional power.

Legacy of the Era

This era notably represents a significant diplomatic and cultural reshuffling in the Near East. Egypt under Amasis II experiences heightened prosperity, expanded regional dominance, and increased integration with the Greek world. Meanwhile, Babylonia, despite its vast territorial holdings, encounters strategic limitations. The dynamics between Greek colonies, local powers, and major empires underline a complex geopolitical landscape that sets the stage for subsequent historical developments.

Near East (561–550 BCE): Wealth of Croesus and Ionian Intellectual Flourishing

Croesus and the Prosperity of Lydia

The wealthy Croesus, succeeding his father Alyattes as king of Lydia, rapidly becomes renowned for his extraordinary riches, derived chiefly from extensive trade networks. Croesus notably issues coins made from electrum—an alloy of gold and silver that the Greeks call "white gold" (today known as "green gold"). Although electrum coins had been minted previously, possibly beginning with King Gyges, Croesus refines the system significantly. His earliest coins bear distinctive motifs: facing heads of a lion and a bull, a design he later transfers to a groundbreaking bimetallic series featuring separate coins of pure gold and pure silver. Recent scholarship debates whether this pure-metal coinage was issued by Croesus himself or introduced later by his Persian successors. Nonetheless, Croesus' innovations deeply influence monetary systems in Greece, coinciding with the initial Greek production of silver coins.

Ephesus and the Temple of Artemis

During this period, Croesus asserts authority over the prominent Ionian city of Ephesus, which had previously been ruled by local tyrants allied by marriage to Lydia’s kings. His patronage significantly enhances Ephesus' religious and architectural status, especially through the lavish rebuilding of the Artemisium (Temple of Artemis), one of the ancient world’s architectural marvels. Following a destructive flood in the seventh century BCE, reconstruction under Croesus' sponsorship begins around 560 BCE, led by the acclaimed Cretan architect Chersiphron and his son Metagenes. The temple, reputedly the first Greek temple constructed entirely of marble, spans approximately 377 by 180 feet (115 by 55 meters), becoming the largest and most celebrated temple of its era. Decorated with detailed columns bearing reliefs of mythical figures and inscriptions commemorating Croesus’ donations, the Artemisium houses a revered archaic statue of Artemis. Its grandeur secures its place as one of the legendary Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. At this time, the Ephesians relocate their primary settlement onto the plain, prompting legal and civic reforms reportedly drafted by the Athenian lawgiver Aristarchus.

Intellectual Legacy of the Milesian Philosophers

In the nearby city of Miletus, significant philosophical advancements continue to shape early Western thought. The pioneering philosopher Thales of Miletus, renowned for his work on geometry, astronomy, and navigational methods, passes away around this time. Thales famously holds that water is the fundamental substance underlying all existence, asserting that the Earth itself floats upon water.

Thales’ student and intellectual heir, Anaximander of Miletus, also dies shortly after his teacher. Distinguished for challenging Thales' single-element theory, Anaximander introduces the concept of the apeiron ("boundless" or "indefinite"), an infinite and undefined principle from which all matter emerges and into which it eventually returns. Rejecting traditional mythology, Anaximander seeks rational explanations for cosmological phenomena, hypothesizing a cylindrical Earth and creating the first known map of the world, while also proposing early theories about marine life's origins.

Completing this lineage of Milesian philosophers, Anaximenes proposes yet another innovative cosmology, suggesting air (aer) as the foundational substance of all existence. According to Anaximenes, transformations among air, water, fire, and earth result from processes of condensation and rarefaction—thus offering early explanations for various natural phenomena, including celestial bodies and divine entities.

Legacy of the Era

The decade spanning 561 to 550 BCE is marked by extraordinary cultural and economic dynamism in the Near East. Lydia under Croesus achieves unmatched commercial prosperity and innovation in monetary systems, leaving a lasting economic legacy. Ephesus, benefiting from Lydian patronage, becomes architecturally iconic through the construction of the magnificent Artemisium. Concurrently, the Milesian philosophers—Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes—profoundly influence the intellectual landscape, laying foundational stones for Western philosophy and science through their rational, observational approaches to understanding nature.