In foreign policy Elizabeth plays against each other the major powers of France and Spain, as well as the papacy and Scotland.

These are all Catholic and each want to end Protestantism in England.

Elizabeth is cautious in foreign affairs and only halfheartedly supports a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France and Ireland.

She risks war with Spain by supporting the "Sea Dogs," such as Walter Raleigh, John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake, who prey on the Spanish merchant ships carrying gold and silver from the New World.

The major war comes with Spain, 1585–1603.

When Spain tries to invade and conquer England it is a fiasco, and the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associates Elizabeth's name forever with what is popularly viewed as one of the greatest victories in English history.

Her enemies fail to combine and Elizabeth's foreign policy successfully navigates all the dangers.

John Hawkins, born into a family of seafarers at Plymouth, is the son, by Joan Trelawny, of William Hawkins the elder, a confidant of Henry VIII of England and one of the principal sea captains of England.

Young Hawkins, who made his earliest voyages to the Canary Islands as a young man, is probably the first major English slave trader, although some sources point to John Lok in 1553.

Hawkins’ first voyage, of 1555, had led three small ships to the Sierra Leone coast in order to capture slaves.

He had left Africa with a cargo of around three hundred enslaved West Africans, having seized them from the Portuguese.

Despite having two ships seized by the Spanish authorities, he had sold the slaves in Santo Domingo and thus made a profit for his London investors.

His voyage had caused the Spanish to ban all English ships from trading in their West Indies colonies.

Twenty-seven in 1555, he marries Katherine Gonson, whose father is treasurer of the navy.

Northwest Europe (1564–1575 CE): Religious Settlements, Dynastic Intrigue, and Cultural Flourishing

England: Elizabethan Religious Settlement and Stability

The reign of Elizabeth I, beginning in 1558, ushered in relative stability through the Elizabethan Religious Settlement (1559), which established a moderate Protestant Anglican Church. This settlement navigated a careful middle path between radical Protestantism and Catholicism, yet tensions persisted with Catholic recusants and Puritan dissenters. Elizabeth’s excommunication by Pope Pius V in 1570 via the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis further heightened anti-Catholic sentiment and solidified her Protestant governance.

Scotland: Consolidation of Protestantism and Abdication Crisis

Scotland faced profound religious and political changes. John Knox continued to consolidate Protestantism through the Kirk, establishing Calvinist doctrine. The return of Mary, Queen of Scots from France in 1561, however, introduced political instability, culminating in her forced abdication in 1567 following the murder of her second husband, Lord Darnley, and her controversial marriage to the Earl of Bothwell. Her infant son, James VI, succeeded her, leading to a prolonged regency period dominated by Protestant nobility.

Ireland: Elizabethan Expansion and Resistance

Under Elizabethan rule, English administrators intensified efforts to extend control across Ireland, promoting Protestantism and English law through plantation policies. These actions provoked continuous resistance and rebellions from Gaelic Irish chieftains, such as Shane O’Neill, whose revolt challenged English authority significantly before being suppressed in 1567. The resultant instability highlighted the complexities of English governance in Ireland.

Scandinavia: Lutheran Consolidation and Monarchical Authority

In Denmark-Norway, King Frederick II consolidated Lutheran ecclesiastical and secular authority, strengthening the centralized monarchy. His reign was marked by peace and prosperity, fostering trade and cultural development. In Iceland, Lutheranism remained rigorously enforced, embedding the island deeper into Danish administrative and religious spheres.

Cultural Renaissance and Literary Flourishing

The Elizabethan era saw vibrant intellectual and cultural advancement across Northwest Europe, particularly in England. Renaissance humanism profoundly influenced literature, art, and education. Figures such as the poet and courtier Sir Philip Sidney emerged, contributing significantly to literary and cultural discourse. Theatre and drama flourished, laying foundations for England’s golden age of literature. Architectural trends continued to evolve, characterized by symmetrical forms and elaborate ornamentation reflective of Renaissance aesthetics.

Maritime Exploration and Commercial Expansion

Maritime activity and exploration expanded notably during this period. English maritime ventures, spearheaded by figures like Sir Francis Drake and John Hawkins, intensified, leading to increased competition with Spain and Portugal. These voyages were marked by trade expansion and occasional conflict, significantly enhancing England's naval and commercial capabilities and setting the stage for future colonial endeavors.

Legacy of the Era

By 1575 CE, Northwest Europe had experienced critical shifts toward religious stability under Elizabeth I, significant dynastic upheaval in Scotland, and increased English administrative ambitions in Ireland. Cultural and intellectual life thrived, furthered by humanist ideas and growing maritime commerce. These developments collectively shaped a distinctly dynamic period, laying robust foundations for the transformative decades ahead

Eastern West Indies (1564–1575 CE): Piracy, Plantation Growth, and Intensified Colonial Struggles

The era from 1564 to 1575 in the Eastern West Indies witnessed heightened pirate activity, substantial growth in the plantation economy, and the consolidation of Spanish colonial authority. These developments brought prosperity to a select few, intensified hardship for the enslaved and indigenous populations, and increased rivalry with other European powers in the Caribbean.

Heightened Piracy and Maritime Threats

Pirate raids, particularly by French corsairs and English privateers, intensified dramatically during this period. Spanish maritime trade routes became perilous, and the waters surrounding Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, and the Lesser Antilles turned into prime hunting grounds for pirates such as John Hawkins and Francis Drake. These incursions compelled colonial administrators to further expand defensive fortifications at key ports, notably El Morro in San Juan, which evolved into a nearly impregnable stronghold during these years.

Expansion and Consolidation of the Sugar Economy

The sugar industry continued to dominate economic life, resulting in rapid plantation expansion throughout Hispaniola and Puerto Rico. Wealth from sugar exports fueled further investment, increasing the demand for enslaved African laborers. Conditions for enslaved peoples became harsher as plantations sought maximum productivity, firmly entrenching slavery as the region’s primary labor system. The social hierarchy became increasingly rigid, with wealthy plantation owners gaining extensive power at the expense of both enslaved Africans and remaining indigenous communities.

Decline of Indigenous Populations

The era also witnessed the continuing decline of indigenous populations, notably the Taíno, whose numbers were severely reduced by disease, forced labor, and cultural disruption. By the mid-1570s, indigenous communities had nearly disappeared from the major islands, surviving mostly in isolated areas. The resultant demographic shift led to an increased reliance on enslaved Africans, permanently altering the region’s cultural and social landscapes.

Religious Influence and Social Control

The Roman Catholic Church strengthened its position by expanding missionary and educational activities aimed at both the enslaved and free populations. Missions served dual purposes: religious instruction and social regulation, promoting a degree of cultural conformity essential to Spanish colonial control. Missionaries attempted, with varying degrees of success, to instill Catholic teachings among enslaved Africans, blending European beliefs with African traditions, a process that gradually reshaped the spiritual landscape of the region.

Geopolitical Rivalries and Colonial Ambitions

The increased wealth and strategic value of the Eastern West Indies intensified European rivalries in the Caribbean basin. Spain’s dominance faced continuous challenges from England and France, whose growing interest in the region foreshadowed further colonial conflicts. The strategic importance of Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and the Lesser Antilles ensured that they remained pivotal territories in the ongoing European power struggles for control of the Americas.

The era 1564–1575 thus solidified the socio-economic patterns that would characterize the Eastern West Indies for centuries, including plantation agriculture, racial hierarchies, and geopolitical rivalries, setting the stage for intensified conflict and transformation in subsequent periods.

John Hawkins, an English shipbuilder, merchant, navigator, and slave trader, has rented from Queen Elizabeth the huge old seven hundred-ton ship Jesus of Lubeck, and has set forth on his second slaving voyage, longer and more extensive than the first, along with three small ships.

Some scholars suggest it was Hawkins who introduced tobacco into England.

Some accounts say this was in 1569, others in 1564.

The latter is more likely, since he mentions "Ltobaccoj" (meaning tobacco) in his journals of the second voyage.

Hawkins sails to Borburata, privateering along the way.

By the time he reaches Borburata, he has gathered around four hundred enslaved West Africans.

John Hawkins, having sailed to the newly founded French colony in Florida for a respite and departed Florida before the destruction of Fort Caroline, returns to England in September 1565, his expedition a total success as his financiers have seen a sixty percent profit.

He is the first to import potatoes to England in either 1563 or 1565 (sources differ).

Hawkins sails from Borburata to Rio de la Hacha, where the Spanish officials try to prevent his sale of the slaves by imposing taxes.

Hawkins refuses the taxes and threatens to burn the towns.

After selling his cargo, he heads for the coast of present northern Florida.

John Hawkins, having sold into slavery the four hundred Africans he has captured in the Spanish port of Riohacha in present Colombia, sails to the newly founded French colony in Florida for a respite.

Francis Drake, born in Devonshire between 1540 and 1543 to a tenant farming family, had been raised by his relatives, the Hawkins pirate merchants of Plymouth, and at eighteen or so had enlisted in the family fleet, which prowled for shipping to plunder or seize off the French coast.

He spent his early career honing his sailing skills on the difficult waters of the North Sea, and after the death of the captain for whom he was sailing, he had become master of his own barque.

He had graduated by the early 1560s to the African trade, in which the Hawkins family has an increasing interest.

The twenty-six-year-old Drake makes his first voyage to the New World in 1566, in company with his cousin, John Hawkins, in a slave-trading expedition to the Cape Verde Islands and the West Indies.

Resenting the Spanish authorities' claims to regulate their colonies' trade and impound contraband, Drake will later refer to some “wrongs” that he and his companions had suffered—wrongs that plans to right in the future.

Hawkins' voyage home has been a miserable one.

The English proclaim foul treachery on the part of the Spanish, who dismiss the action as justifiable response to piracy.

The Spanish consider Hawkins, Drake, et al, as outlaw pirates, but to England they are simply sailors and privateers.

Although Hawkins’ first three voyages have certainly been semi-piratical enterprises, Elizabeth is in need of money and England sees pirates as fighting England's battles at their own cost and risk.

Hawkins will write about the details of his third voyage in An Alliance to Raid for Slaves, commenting on the close relationship of trading and raiding in the English slave trade and the ways in which European success in the slave trade depends directly on African allies who are willing to cooperate.