Near East (45 BCE–99 CE): Transition and Turmoil under Roman Dominance

This era in the Near East witnesses dramatic shifts in political control, religious movements, and cultural integration under increasing Roman influence. Following Julius Caesar’s assassination in 44 BCE, Mark Antony and Octavian (later Augustus) emerge victorious in the subsequent Liberators' civil war against Caesar’s assassins, reasserting Roman dominance over eastern territories. Antony’s campaigns, notably his ill-fated Parthian expedition, significantly shape local power dynamics.

Antony allies with Egypt’s Cleopatra VII, ultimately challenging Roman authority. Their defeat by Octavian at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE) leads to Egypt’s annexation into the Roman Empire, concluding Cleopatra’s independent reign. Cleopatra’s suicide symbolizes the definitive end of Egypt’s Hellenistic era and initiates over six centuries of direct Roman control. Egypt, a vital grain supplier to Rome, becomes a strategically crucial province governed directly by the emperor.

Herod the Great, appointed by Rome as king of Judah in 37 BCE, stabilizes Roman rule in Palestine. Upon Herod’s death in 4 BCE, his kingdom fragments among heirs, eventually absorbed by Rome as Syria Palestina. Though under Roman sovereignty, the Jews retain religious autonomy via the Sanhedrin, the authoritative Jewish council overseeing religious, legal, and political matters.

Tensions culminate in the First Jewish-Roman War (66–73 CE), ignited by religious disputes, oppressive taxation, and Roman insensitivity to Jewish traditions. Roman generals Vespasian and Titus decisively destroy Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE, ending independent Jewish statehood and intensifying the Jewish Diaspora. The final tragic stand occurs at Masada in 73 CE.

Rabbinic leadership significantly shifts post-Jerusalem's fall. Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai establishes an academic and religious center at Yavneh (Jabneh), creating a new focal point for Judaism recognized throughout the Diaspora. His successors, notably Gamaliel of Jabneh, formalize Jewish religious practices, standardize the calendar, and mediate with Roman authorities, exemplified by Gamaliel’s appeal to Emperor Domitian in 95 CE to rescind Jewish expulsions.

Meanwhile, Christianity prominently emerges, marked by doctrinal debates, notably the rise of Docetism, a Gnostic-influenced teaching claiming Christ only appeared physically, challenging foundational Christian doctrines. Early Christian texts, especially the Johannine Epistles (95–110 CE) from western Anatolia, counter these beliefs by emphasizing the incarnation and communal orthodoxy.

Relations between Meroë and Egypt fluctuate, notably with a Roman punitive expedition in 23 BCE responding to incursions into Upper Egypt. Despite this conflict, continued interactions with Mediterranean, Arab, and Indian traders enrich Meroë’s society, leaving significant architectural and linguistic legacies. Meroë maintains cultural vibrancy, even as northern Kush faces pressure from nomadic Blemmyes, but continues its prominence through trade and cultural integration.

In Cyprus, the missionary activities of Paul and Barnabas lead to the conversion of the Roman proconsul Sergius Paulus, marking Cyprus as the first Roman territory governed by a Christian. Elsewhere, the Lydian language persists among descendants of Lydian colonists at Kibyra in southwest Anatolia, despite becoming extinct in Lydia proper around this period.

Legacy of the Era

From 45 BCE to 99 CE, the Near East experiences profound transformations under Roman hegemony. The definitive incorporation of Egypt into Rome, the violent suppression and subsequent restructuring of Jewish society, and the theological crystallization within early Christianity define this critical juncture. These events lay lasting foundations for regional identities, religious developments, and socio-political dynamics in subsequent centuries.

Rabbi Johanan ben-Zakai had received Vespasian's permission during the siege of Jerusalem to withdraw to the town of Yibna (also seen as Jabneh) on the coastal plain, about twenty-four kilometers southwest of present-day Tel Aviv.

Here an academic center or academy is set up and becomes the central religious authority; its jurisdiction is recognized by Jews in Palestine and beyond.

Roman rule continues.

Johanan ben Zakkai, head of the Sanhedrin during the years leading up to the Jewish Revolt, had acted as a leading representative of the Pharisees in debate with priestly and Sadducean authorities.

One in search of learning would go to extremes, if need be, to be admitted to Johanan's famous school in Jerusalem.

Furthermore, Johanan had opposed the policy of those who were determined on war with Rome at all costs.

By quitting beleaguered Jerusalem according to most accounts in 70 (though it is possible that he left as early as 68) and being brought to the Roman camp, he somehow succeeds in getting permission to set up an academy in …

…Jamnia (Jabneh, modern Yibna, about twenty-four kilometers southwest of present-day Tel Aviv), near the Judaean coast, and here he is joined by a number of his favorite disciples, including Eliezer ben Hyrcanus and Joshua ben Hananiah.

The two are credited with having smuggled their master out of Jerusalem in a coffin for burial, after pretending that he was dead.

Near East (76–87 CE): Emergence of Rabbinic Judaism and Cultural Transition

In the aftermath of the devastating Great Jewish Revolt (66–73 CE), significant changes reshape Jewish society and culture. The militant Zealots, once influential revolutionaries, have been crushed by Roman forces, their resistance culminating in a dramatic final stand at Masada in 73 CE. Similarly, the influential sects of the Sadducees, intimately connected to the now-destroyed Second Temple, and the ascetic Essenes, known for their remote community at Qumran, also fade into obscurity.

The only major sect to survive the turmoil is the Pharisees, who quickly adapt to new realities, focusing their teachings away from Temple-centric worship toward broader community practices. Prominent Pharisee Yohanan ben Zakkai establishes himself as the first Patriarch (Nasi) and reconstitutes the Sanhedrin at Yavneh, marking the rise of rabbinic Judaism. In place of traditional sacrificial rituals, the rabbis now instruct Jews to engage in acts of charity and emphasize the study of Torah in local synagogues, transforming religious practice into a communal and scholarly endeavor. Galilee, particularly the city of Tiberias, emerges as the new center of rabbinic learning.

Elsewhere, urban centers such as Alexandria, Miletus, and Smyrna flourish as prominent hubs of commerce and production, bolstering the development of an affluent urban Greek elite.

This period also sees significant developments in early Christian literature. The Gospel According to Matthew, traditionally ascribed to the Apostle Matthew and written primarily for Jewish-Christian communities, emphasizes fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies and presents Jesus as a new lawgiver. Written between approximately 70–90 CE, its narrative structure and thematic elements heavily draw upon earlier sources, notably the Gospel of Mark.

Likewise, the Gospel According to Luke, composed around 80–90 CE, offers a detailed account emphasizing universal salvation, the dignity of women, and social compassion, uniquely presenting parables such as the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son. Often linked stylistically and thematically with the Acts of the Apostles, Luke’s Gospel significantly shapes the early Christian narrative and community identity.

Legacy of the Era

The era from 76 to 87 CE is transformative, solidifying rabbinic Judaism as the central framework for Jewish religious and community life following the destruction of the Temple. Concurrently, flourishing urban centers and the development of key Christian texts reflect broader cultural and religious transitions within the Near East, setting foundational patterns that profoundly influence subsequent historical and spiritual landscapes.

The Zealots and revolutionaries like them had been crushed by the Romans following the Jewish-Roman War of 66-73, and had little credibility (the last Zealots died at Masada in 73).

Similarly, the Sadducees, whose teachings were so closely connected to the Temple, had disappeared with the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE.

The Essenes too have disappeared, perhaps because their teachings so diverged from the concerns of the times, perhaps because they were sacked by the Romans at Qumran.

Of all the major Second Temple sects, only the Pharisees remain, poised with teachings directed to all Jews that could replace Temple worship.

Such teachings extended beyond ritual practices.

Following the destruction of the Temple, Rome governs Judea through a Procurator at Caesarea and a Jewish Patriarch and levies the Fiscus Judaicus.

Yohanan ben Zakkai, a leading Pharisee, has been appointed the first Patriarch (the Hebrew word, Nasi, also means prince, or president), and he has reestablished the Sanhedrin at Yavneh under Pharisee control.

Instead of giving tithes to the priests and sacrificing offerings at the (now-destroyed) Temple, the rabbis instruct Jews to give charity.

Moreover, they argue that all Jews should study in local synagogues, because Torah is "the inheritance of the congregation of Jacob" (Deut. 33: 4).

Galilee, especially the city of Tiberias, becomes the center of rabbinic learning after the fall of Jerusalem.

The Pharisaic leaders, given the title of "rabbi" (Hebrew, "my teacher") shortly after the destruction of the Second Temple and the fall of Jerusalem, rally the Jews for the reconstruction of religious and social life.

Jewish leader Johanan ben Zakkai, head of the Sanhedrin, has reconvened the Pharisaic assembly at Jabneh, where it becomes both an executive organ and an academy for the study of the Torah.

The Romans recognize the head of the Sanhedrin and give him the title of patriarch; Diaspora Jews recognize his authority and interpretation of Jewish law.

The Pharisees use the institution of the synagogues a center of worship and education, and to adapt religious practice to new conditions, maintaining a unified and informed Jewish community. (The synagogues of Palestine and the Diaspora were, for three centuries before the destruction of the Temple, the functioning centers of Judaism, though when and how the synagogue emerged is not known.)

The elaborate sacerdotal vestments, prescribed for the priests of the Temple in Exodus 28, disappear, along with the priestly function, after the Temple’s destruction.

The Jewish scholars and teachers called tannaim continue to elaborate and systematize the Oral Torah.

The Hebrew alphabet, under the influence of the related Aramaic alphabet, has evolved during the period of the Second Temple into the familiar Square Script still used today.

Gamaliel of Jabneh, a great-grandson of Gamaliel I who succeeds Johanan ben Zakkai as head of the Sanhedrin at Jabneh, organizes the synagogue service and standardizes the Jewish calendar, assigning fixed dates to festivals.

He petitions Emperor Domitian in 95 to rescind an edict expelling the Jews from the empire.