Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, working a small farm at the time of a Roman crisis in which a consular army is surrounded by the Aequi on Mount Algidus, is appointed dictator at Rome in order to rescue the beleaguered force.

Cincinnatus allegedly defeats the enemy in a single day, celebrates a triumph in Rome, then, after seeing the city safely through the emergency, resigns the dictatorship and returns to his farm.

Legend has Spurius Maelius, a wealthy plebeian, buying up a large supply of grain and selling it at low prices to the Roman people during the severe famine of 440—439.

Lucius Minucius Augurinus, the patrician praefectus annonae (president of the market), thereupon accuses him of courting popularity with a view to making himself king; the cry is taken up.

Maelius, summoned in 439 before the aged Cincinnatus, specially appointed dictator to resolve the situation, refuses to appear, and is slain by magister equitum Gaius Servilius Ahala; his house is razed to the ground, his wheat distributed among the people, and his property confiscated.

The open space called Aequimaelium, on which his house had stood, preserves the memory of his death.

Cicero calls Ahala's deed a glorious one, but, whether Maelius entertained any ambitious projects or not, his summary execution was an act of murder, since by the Valerio-Horatian laws the dictator was bound to allow the right of appeal.

Ahala is brought to trial, and only escapes condemnation by going into voluntary exile.

A bill will be brought forward three years afterwards, in 436 BCE, by another Spurius Maelius, a tribune, for confiscating the property of Ahala, but it fails to pass.

(A related tradition, also discounted by most scholars, has Cincinnatus receiving a second dictatorship to check Maelius’s monarchial ambitions, then once again ceding the reins of power after the crisis ends.)

Northwest Europe (1252 – 1395 CE): Hundred Years’ War, Scottish Independence, and North Sea Commerce

Geographic and Environmental Context

Northwest Europe includes Iceland, Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Faroe, Shetland, and Orkney Islands, the Channel Islands, and the western coastal zones of Norway and Denmark (west of 10°E).

 

• Anchors: London–Westminster, Dublin–Cork–Waterford, Edinburgh–Stirling, Bergen, Reykjavík–Thingvellir, Channel ports (Dover, Southampton, Bristol), and North Sea ports (Hull, King’s Lynn).

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Little Ice Age onset (~1300): cooler, wetter conditions reduced yields; Great Famine (1315–1317) struck Britain and Ireland.

• Black Death (1348–1350): decimated urban populations (London, Dublin, York, Edinburgh, Bergen).

• Fisheries (herring, cod) thrived in colder seas.

Societies and Political Developments

• England: Edward I’s conquest of Wales (1282); Wars of Scottish Independence (1296–1328, 1332–1357); Hundred Years’ War against France (from 1337).

• Scotland: William Wallace, Robert the Bruce, and victory at Bannockburn (1314) secured independence, recognized in the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton (1328).

• Ireland: Anglo-Norman lordship declined; Gaelic resurgence after 14th-century crises.

• Norway: waning influence; Orkney, Shetland, Hebrides slipped toward Scottish control.

• Iceland: under Norwegian crown (1262–64); Althing continued local governance.

Economy and Trade

• English wool: critical for Flemish cloth industry; Calais staple (post-1347 English conquest) reorganized trade.

• North Sea ports: Hull, King’s Lynn, Bristol handled wine, cloth, fish.

• Hanseatic merchants entered London (Steelyard).

• Norwegian stockfish trade (Bergen to Lübeck, London) flourished; Iceland supplied wool and fish.

Belief and Symbolism

• Gothic architecture: Westminster Abbey, York Minster; Scottish abbeys; Norwegian stave churches persisted.

• Saint cults: St. Thomas Becket in Canterbury, St. Magnus in Orkney.

• Mysticism: English and Irish vernacular devotion expanded (Julian of Norwich).

Adaptation and Resilience

• Maritime redundancy: trade shifted among ports during war or plague.

• England’s parliamentary institutions matured (Model Parliament, 1295).

• Scotland consolidated monarchy; Ireland fragmented between Gaelic and Anglo-Norman spheres.

Long-Term Significance

By 1395, Northwest Europe was a fractured but dynamic region: England locked in war with France, Scotland independent, Ireland divided, and the North Sea–North Atlantic fisheries increasingly central. It was a crucible for the late-medieval state and maritime economy.

Edward's downfall comes in 1326 when his wife, Queen Isabella, travels to her native France, then, along with her lover Roger Mortimer, invades England.

Despite their tiny force, they quickly rally support for their cause.

The king flees London, and his companion since Piers Gaveston's death, Hugh Despenser, is publicly tried and executed.

Edward is eventually captured and charged with breaking his coronation oath.

He is deposed and remains imprisoned in Gloucestershire until he is murdered some time in the autumn of 1327, presumably by agents of Isabella and Mortimer.

Edward III, son of Edward II, had been crowned at age fourteen after his father had been deposed by his mother and her consort Roger Mortimer.

At age seventeen he leads a successful coup against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of the country, and begins his personal reign.

Edward III (reigned 1327–1377) restores royal authority and goes on to transform the Kingdom of England into the most efficient military power in Europe.

His reign sees vital developments in legislature and government—in particular the evolution of the English parliament—as well as the ravages of the Black Death.

After defeating, but not subjugating, the Kingdom of Scotland, he declares himself rightful heir to the French throne in 1338, but his claim is denied due to the Salic law.

This starts what will become known as the Hundred Years' War.

Following some initial setbacks the war goes exceptionally well for England; victories at Crécy and Poitiers lead to the highly favorable Treaty of Brétigny.

Edward's later years, however, are marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity and poor health.

The Marriage of Edward II and Isabella of France (1308) and Growing Noble Resentment

On January 25, 1308, King Edward II of England married Isabella of France, daughter of King Philip IV of France, in Boulogne. This union was intended to strengthen Anglo-French relations following the Treaty of Paris (1303), which had restored Gascony to England and sought to prevent further conflict between the two kingdoms.

Piers Gaveston as Regent and Noble Suspicion

• Before departing for France to wed Isabella, Edward II appointed his close friend and confidant, Piers Gaveston, as regent.
• Gaveston, a Gascon knight, had risen to extraordinary prominence under Edward, enjoying lavish royal favor and influence.
• This deeply alienated the English magnates, who saw Gaveston as an unworthy foreigner and a dangerous influence on the king.
• The marriage to Isabella did little to ease their suspicions, as Edward’s favoritism toward Gaveston continued unabated.

Tensions Between Edward II, Isabella, and the Barons

• Upon her arrival in England, Isabella found herself sidelined, as Edward showered attention on Gaveston, reportedly ignoring his new queen at their own coronation feast.
• The English barons, already hostile to Gaveston, grew even more determined to curtail his influence, leading to an ongoing power struggle.
• In 1308, Edward was forced to banish Gaveston under pressure from his magnates, though he would recall him soon after, further inflaming tensions.

The Road to Conflict

• The Isabella-Edward marriage alliance failed to stabilize English politics, as noble resentment toward the king’s favoritism toward Gaveston deepened.
• The crisis would escalate into baronial opposition, leading to the execution of Gaveston in 1312 and the eventual collapse of Edward II’s rule in 1327, when Isabella played a leading role in his deposition.

Edward II’s marriage to Isabella of France in 1308 was intended as a diplomatic success, but it failed to resolve internal tensions, as his continued favoritism toward Gaveston alienated his nobility, setting the stage for one of the most turbulent reigns in English history.

A French invasion, supported by the English magnates and engineered by Isabella, King Edward II’s queen, and her lover, Roger de Mortimer, first Earl of March, the thirty-nine-year-old grandson of Edouard (Edward) I’s supporter of the same name, ends the oppressive rule of Edward and Despenser in 1326.

Together, Isabella and Mortimer depose her husband, who is succeeded by his fourteen-year-old-son son as Edward III, and take control of the government.

Charles IV of France: Ineffective Intervention in Flanders and the English War (1324–1327)

During his reign (1322–1328), King Charles IV of France made several unsuccessful political and military maneuvers, including an inept intervention in Flanders, an unsuccessful bid for the Holy Roman Empire, and a short war with England over Aquitaine.

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Failed Intervention in Flanders and Imperial Ambitions

• Charles IV attempted to intervene in Flemish affairs, supporting rebels against their counts, but his efforts were poorly executed and largely ineffective.
• At the same time, he sought to secure the nomination as Holy Roman Emperor, but his intrigues failed to gain support, leaving the imperial title beyond his reach.

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The War of Saint-Sardos (1324): The Invasion of Aquitaine

• In 1324, Charles IV launched an invasion of English-held Aquitaine, part of the long-standing territorial dispute between France and England.
• This campaign, known as the War of Saint-Sardos, was triggered by French efforts to expand control in the region, which England resisted.
• The French quickly occupied several areas of Aquitaine, further straining Anglo-French relations.

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The Deposition of Edward II and the Treaty of 1327

• Charles IV aided his sister, Isabella of France, in her effort to depose her husband, Edward II of England.
• Isabella and her lover, Roger Mortimer, invaded England in 1326, leading to Edward II’s forced abdication in early 1327.
• Shortly afterward, Charles IV concluded a peace treaty with England (1327), securing:
  • Territorial gains in Aquitaine.
  • A large monetary settlement, compensating for his war expenses.

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Legacy and Consequences

• Charles IV’s policies were largely ineffective, and his attempts at expansion in Flanders and Germany failed.
• His military success against England was only temporary, as the Anglo-French conflict over Aquitaine remained unresolved, setting the stage for future wars.
• His death in 1328, without a male heir, led to the end of the direct Capetian line and the rise of the House of Valois, ultimately contributing to the tensions that would erupt into the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453).

Charles IV’s reign was marked by ambitious but largely unsuccessful political maneuvers, securing short-term gains in Aquitaine but failing in his larger European ambitions.

The Death of Charles IV and the Rise of Philip VI: The End of the Direct Capetians (1328)

On February 1, 1328, King Charles IV of France, the last of the direct Capetian kings, died without a male heir at the age of thirty-four. His death triggered a succession crisis, as there was no clear precedent for whether the throne could pass through a female line.

The Succession Crisis: Edward III’s Claim Rejected

• The strongest claim came from Edward III of England, whose mother, Isabella of France, was the daughter of Philip IV and sister of Charles IV.
• However, the French magnates rejected Edward’s claim, arguing that the throne could not pass through a woman.
• This decision was based on an evolving interpretation of succession laws, later referred to as the Salic Law, which excluded female succession and inheritance through the female line.

The Rise of Philip VI: The First Valois King

• Instead of Edward III, the throne passed to Philip VI, the late king’s thirty-five-year-old cousin.
• Philip had already inherited the counties of Valois, Anjou, and Maine from his father, Charles of Valois, in 1325.
• As the nephew of Philip IV, Philip VI was the closest male heir in the Capetian line, making him the first king of France from the House of Valois.

Consequences of the Succession

• While the French magnates considered the matter settled, Edward III of England did not forget the rejection of his claim.
• In 1337, Edward revived his claim to the French throne, launching the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453), one of the longest and most consequential conflicts in European history.
• Philip VI’s accession marked the beginning of the Valois dynasty, which would rule France for over two centuries, through periods of war, territorial expansion, and internal strife.

The succession crisis of 1328 was a turning point in French history, as the rejection of Edward III’s claim laid the groundwork for Anglo-French hostilities that would shape Europe for the next century.

Edward, just eighteen, executes Mortimer on November 29, 1330, has his mother confined, and inaugurates his personal reign.