The Hook and Cod Wars and the Struggle for Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut (1417–1420)

The Hook and Cod Wars, a long-running conflict over control of Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut, reignited in 1417upon the death of William VI, Count of Holland and Hainaut. His daughter, Jacqueline of Bavaria, and his brother, John III of Bavaria-Straubing (known as John the Pitiless), both laid claim to the inheritance, plunging the region into a civil war.

I. The Succession Crisis and the Role of the Holy Roman Emperor (1417)

• John III of Bavaria, already Bishop of Liège, rejected holy orders and took secular control of Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut, claiming them over Jacqueline.
• With the support of Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund (his wife's uncle), John III launched a civil war against Jacqueline and her husband, John IV, Duke of Brabant.

II. The Role of Philip the Good and the Siege of Dordrecht (1419)

• When Philip the Good became Duke of Burgundy in 1419, he initially sought to maintain the status quo, avoiding direct intervention in the conflict.
• John the Pitiless, however, openly supported Philip and the city of Dordrecht, making Holland a battleground between opposing factions.
• A siege of Dordrecht in 1419 failed, leading to a compromise between John IV of Brabant and John III:
  • They agreed to a joint administration, though Jacqueline was excluded from political power due to her gender.

III. The Treaty of Sint-Maartensdijk (April 1420): Jacqueline’s Political Defeat

• John IV of Brabant, heavily in debt, chose financial stability over military intervention, mortgaging Holland and Zeeland to John the Pitiless under the Treaty of Sint-Maartensdijk (April 1420).
• Under the treaty:
  • John III was granted full control over Holland and Zeeland for twelve years.
  • John IV and Jacqueline were compensated financially, but the subjects of Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland were released from their oath of allegiance to Jacqueline.
• As Jacqueline lost control of her patrimony, John IV also pledged Hainaut, further undermining her authority.

IV. Jacqueline’s Response: The Push for Separation

• By 1420, Jacqueline and her supporters began seeking a formal separation from John IV, as he had:
  • Abandoned her cause.
  • Financially weakened her position.
  • Failed to defend her claims against John the Pitiless.
• This led to Jacqueline’s increasing opposition to both her husband and uncle, setting the stage for further conflicts and her eventual flight to England in 1421.

V. Consequences and the Path to Burgundian Dominance

• Philip the Good continued to watch the situation carefully, as John IV’s incompetence made Burgundian intervention increasingly inevitable.
• The Treaty of Sint-Maartensdijk effectively sidelined Jacqueline, paving the way for Burgundy’s eventual absorption of Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut.

The Treaty of Sint-Maartensdijk (1420) marked a decisive step in Jacqueline’s loss of power, as her husband prioritized his financial stability over defending her inheritance, leaving her isolated and politically weakened. This set the stage for further conflicts, leading to Burgundian consolidation of the Low Countries in the coming years.

France in Crisis (1422): The Dual Monarchy, Civil War, and the Work of Alain Chartier

By 1422, France was in a state of devastation, still reeling from the disaster at Agincourt (1415) and the subsequent English conquest of Normandy. The civil war between the Armagnacs and the Burgundians showed no sign of resolution, further weakening French resistance.

Following the deaths of both Henry V of England and Charles VI of France within two months of each other in 1422, an infant, Henry VI of England, became the nominal king of both England and France, in accordance with the 1420 Treaty of Troyes. Meanwhile, the Dauphin Charles was recognized in southern France as Charles VII but remained uncrowned and politically weak.

I. The Political Situation in France and England (1422)

• King Charles VI of France died on October 21, 1422, at age fifty-three, leaving his kingdom divided.
• The Treaty of Troyes (1420) had disinherited the Dauphin Charles, granting the French throne to Henry V of England and his heirs.
• However, Henry V had died unexpectedly on August 31, 1422, just two months before Charles VI, leaving his infant son, Henry VI, as the nominal ruler of both England and France.
• John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford, was declared Regent of France, focused on consolidating English control and ensuring Henry VI's claim to the French throne.
• Meanwhile, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, acted as Lord Protector of England, creating a power struggle within the English court.

II. France’s Internal Struggles and the Uncrowned Charles VII

• The Armagnac-Burgundian Civil War continued, preventing a unified French resistance against England.
• The Dauphin Charles VII, though recognized in the south, remained uncrowned, lacking the political and military strength to assert his rule.
• France was in a desperate situation, with large portions of the country occupied by the English and their Burgundian allies.

III. Alain Chartier: A Voice for French Unity and Reform

• Alain Chartier (b. c. 1385 in Bayeux) was a poet, diplomat, and political writer, born into a distinguished family.
• He studied at the University of Paris, as did his elder brother Guillaume Chartier, who later became Bishop of Paris (1447).
• Chartier became a loyal supporter of Charles VII, serving as clerk, notary, and financial secretary.

His Key Works and Their Significance

• Livre des quatre dames (1416) – A poetic lament on the aftermath of Agincourt, told through the voices of four noblewomen affected by the war.
• Débat du reveille-matin (1422–1426?) – A dialogue-based political commentary on France’s struggles.
• La Belle Dame sans Mercy (1424) – A celebrated lyrical poem, influencing later French and English courtly literature.

Le Quadrilogue Invectif (1422): A Call for National Unity

• In 1422, Chartier wrote Le Quadrilogue Invectif, a highly original prose work analyzing France’s political plight during the Anglo-French conflict.
• The dialogue features four interlocutors:
  • France herself, personified as a suffering mother.
  • The Nobility, accused of selfish ambition and failing to defend the kingdom.
  • The Clergy, criticized for corruption and neglect of spiritual duty.
  • The Common People, portrayed as the primary victims of war and civil strife.
• Key Themes:
  • The abuses of the feudal military system and the suffering of the peasantry.
  • The need for unity between warring factions to fight the English invaders.
  • The argument that France’s cause, while desperate, was not yet lost—if internal divisions could be resolved.

IV. The Impact of Chartier’s Work

• Chartier’s writings helped shape early French nationalism, calling for an end to factionalism in favor of a united resistance against England.
• His vision of reform influenced the court of Charles VII, especially during the later campaigns of Joan of Arc (1429–1431).
• Le Quadrilogue Invectif remains one of the most important political treatises of the Hundred Years' War, reflecting the despair and hope of early 15th-century France.

V. Conclusion: A Nation in Crisis but Not Yet Defeated

• France’s situation in 1422 seemed dire, with:
  • An uncrowned Dauphin, Charles VII.
  • English occupation of most of the north.
  • Continued civil war between the Armagnacs and Burgundians.
• However, Chartier’s writings argued that France could still be saved, provided its leaders set aside their rivalries and worked toward a common cause.

The Treaty of Troyes and the succession of Henry VI in 1422 marked the height of English ambitions in France, but French resistance, inspired by figures like Chartier, was far from over.

Jacqueline of Hainaut is an honored guest at the court of England, and when the future Henry VI was born, Jacqueline had been made one of his godparents.

It is only after the unexpected death of Henry V in 1422 that Jacqueline obtains a dubious divorce from John IV of Brabant, valid only in England, that allows her third marriage with Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, Henry V's brother and Regent of the Kingdom on behalf of his infant nephew Henry VI.

However, as not all rules are observed, the marriage is arranged in haste and in secret sometime between February and March 7, 1422, in the town of Hadleigh, Essex.

The news of this marriage shocks everyone.

It is announced on October 15, 1422, that Jacqueline not only is married with one of the most powerful princes of Europe, but also she is rumored to be pregnant with his child.

To secure her position, Jacqueline has to obtain the formal annulment of her marriage with John IV of Brabant, but when she asks Pope Martin V in Rome and Antipope Benedict XIII in Avignon to resolve her irregular marital status, her uncle John III intervenes against it.

Unexpectedly, Philip the Good, who wants to prevent an English invasion, supports the annulment of her cousin's marriage with the Duke of Brabant.

Philip of Saint-Pol and the Political Struggles in Brabant (1419–1422)

Philip of Saint-Pol, younger brother of Duke John IV of Brabant, played a crucial role in the political turmoil of Brabant and the dynastic conflicts surrounding Jacqueline of Bavaria. His tenure as ruwaard (regent) of Brabant (1420–1421) saw rising opposition to his brother’s rule, but following their reconciliation in 1421, Philip stepped down, allowing John IV to regain full ducal power.

To secure support from the citizenry, John IV expanded city privileges and increased the authority of the States of Brabant in 1422, an act known as the Nieuw Regiment. This strengthened his position in the ongoing conflict against Jacqueline of Bavaria and her new husband, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, whom he refused to recognize as her legitimate spouse.

I. Philip of Saint-Pol’s Role in Brabant (1419–1421)

• In 1419, Philip commanded the Burgundian forces occupying Paris, enforcing Burgundian control in the aftermath of John the Fearless’ assassination.
• By 1420, he returned to Brabant, where the populace grew dissatisfied with John IV’s misadministration.
• Philip was declared ruwaard (regent) of Brabant, effectively stripping John IV of power.

II. The Reconciliation of 1421 and the Nieuw Regiment (1422)

• In 1421, Philip reconciled with his brother and resigned as regent, restoring John IV’s ducal authority.
• To secure the support of the Brabantine citizenry, John IV granted expanded privileges to the cities and increased the power of the States of Brabant in 1422.
• This measure, known as the Nieuw Regiment, gave the Brabantine Estates more influence over governance, strengthening urban autonomy while stabilizing ducal power.

III. The Brabantine Support for John IV Against Jacqueline of Bavaria (1422–1428)

• With Brabant now behind him, John IV focused on defending his authority against Jacqueline of Bavaria, his estranged wife.
• Jacqueline had remarried Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, who pressed her claim to Holland and Zeeland.
• John IV never accepted the annulment of his marriage to Jacqueline, and he was later vindicated by Pope Martin V in 1428 (albeit posthumously), further undermining Jacqueline’s legitimacy.

IV. Consequences and Legacy

• The Nieuw Regiment (1422) helped balance the power dynamics in Brabant, allowing greater urban autonomy while preserving ducal authority.
• The dispute over Jacqueline’s marriage contributed to the larger struggle for control over Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut, which would ultimately be decided in favor of Burgundy.
• Philip of Saint-Pol’s brief regency (1420–1421) and reconciliation with John IV played a pivotal role in shaping Brabant’s political structure in the early 15th century.

The power struggle between John IV, Jacqueline of Bavaria, and Humphrey of Gloucester defined the political landscape of Brabant and the Low Countries, as the ducal house of Burgundy gradually absorbed more territories through calculated diplomacy and military action.

Jacqueline of Bavaria, Humphrey of Gloucester, and the Burgundian-English Struggle for Holland and Hainaut (1424–1425)

By autumn 1424, Jacqueline of Bavaria and her second husband, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, relocated to Gloucester’s ancestral lands in England. During this time, Jacqueline suffered a personal tragedy, giving birth to a stillborn child, her only recorded pregnancy.

Shortly thereafter, the couple returned to the Low Countries, aiming to assert their rule over Hainaut, Holland, and Zeeland—territories Jacqueline had inherited but which remained contested by Burgundian forces.

I. Humphrey Declares Himself Ruler of Jacqueline’s Inherited Territories (December 1424 – January 1425)

• Jacqueline and Humphrey landed in Calais and, by late November 1424, entered Mons, the capital of Hainaut.
• On December 5, 1424, the Hainaut States formally recognized Humphrey as their sovereign Count, effectively rejecting Burgundian authority.
• On January 3, 1425, Humphrey asserted his full claim, signing documents with the grandiose title:
  • “Humphrey, by the grace of God’s son, brother and uncle of kings, Duke of Gloucester, Count of Hainaut, Holland, Zeeland, and Pembroke, Lord of Friesland, and Grand Chamberlain of England.”

This public proclamation directly challenged the claims of both the Duke of Brabant and the Duke of Burgundy.

II. The Death of John III of Bavaria and the Burgundian Response (January 1425)

• On January 6, 1425, John III of Bavaria, Jacqueline’s longtime rival for Holland and Zeeland, died suddenly—apparently poisoned.
• With John III dead, John IV, Duke of Brabant, reasserted his claim over Holland, Zeeland, and Hainaut, once again challenging Jacqueline and Humphrey’s authority.
• As he had done before, John IV turned to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, naming him:
  • Regent of Holland and Zeeland.
  • His heir, should he die without issue.

This maneuver effectively transferred control over Holland and Zeeland to Burgundy, dramatically weakening Jacqueline’s position.

III. The Burgundian Campaign Against the English and Jacqueline (1425)

• Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, launched a military campaign to assert his authority over Jacqueline’s contested lands.
• Burgundian forces decisively pushed back the English, forcing Humphrey’s troops to withdraw.
• By the end of the campaign, the English were completely ousted, and Philip consolidated control over Holland and Zeeland, effectively eliminating Jacqueline and Humphrey’s claim to the territories.

IV. Consequences and Jacqueline’s Diminishing Power

• The failure of the English to maintain control over Holland and Zeeland left Jacqueline politically isolated.
• The Burgundian expansion into the Low Countries continued, solidifying Philip the Good’s dominance in the region.
• Humphrey of Gloucester soon returned to England, leaving Jacqueline to face her fate alone in the Burgundian-controlled Low Countries.

By 1425, Jacqueline’s bid to rule independently had collapsed, as Burgundy successfully eliminated English influence in Holland and Zeeland, paving the way for the full Burgundian takeover of her territories.

Jacqueline of Bavaria’s Escape and the Renewed Struggle for Holland and Zeeland (1425)

By September 1425, Jacqueline of Bavaria, having ended the war in the custody of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, managed a daring escape from Ghent. Disguised in men’s clothing, she fled to Schoonhoven and later Gouda, where she sought refuge with leaders of the Hook faction and once again asserted her claim to Holland and Zeeland.

This marked the resurgence of the Hook and Cod Wars, as Jacqueline, now the leader of the Hooks, attempted to reclaim her inheritance from Burgundian control.

I. Jacqueline’s Escape and Return to the Fight

• Imprisoned by Philip the Good, Jacqueline’s escape from Ghent in September 1425 was a bold move.
• Disguised as a man, she evaded her captors and made her way to Schoonhoven, a Hook stronghold.
• She later took refuge in Gouda, where she gathered her supporters and reaffirmed her right to rule.

II. The Resurgence of the Hook and Cod Conflict

• Jacqueline’s return reignited the factional struggle between the Hooks and the Cods.
• Her supporters, the Hooks, drew their strength from:
  • Petty nobility who resented Burgundian encroachment.
  • Small towns that favored local autonomy over Burgundian centralization.
• The Cods, who opposed her, were primarily:
  • Burghers of major cities, including Rotterdam and Dordrecht.
  • Merchants and officials who favored stability and trade under Burgundian rule.

III. Consequences and the Next Phase of the Conflict

• Jacqueline’s escape and return to Gouda in 1425 sparked renewed hostilities, as she attempted to mobilize resistance against Philip the Good.
• The conflict escalated into further battles, setting the stage for Burgundy’s continued consolidation of power in the Low Countries.
• Despite her efforts, Burgundian forces remained strong, and Jacqueline’s ability to resist long-term was uncertain.

Jacqueline’s bold escape in 1425 and her leadership of the Hooks momentarily revived her cause, but the rising power of Burgundy and the dominance of the Cod faction made her struggle increasingly difficult.

Jacqueline of Bavaria’s Counteroffensive and the Battle of Alphen (1425)

Following her escape from Burgundian custody in September 1425, Jacqueline of Bavaria sought to regain control over Holland and Zeeland. Facing the growing dominance of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, she turned to her husband, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, for military support.

While awaiting reinforcements from England, Jacqueline’s forces achieved a significant victory at the Battle of Alphen on October 22, 1425, defeating a Burgundian force composed largely of city militia.

I. Jacqueline Appeals to Humphrey for Reinforcements

• Humphrey, still in England, responded to Jacqueline’s call for aid and began raising a force of 1,500 English troops.
• The expeditionary force was led by Walter FitzWalter, 7th Baron FitzWalter, a seasoned English commander.
• These reinforcements were intended to bolster Jacqueline’s resistance against Burgundy and strengthen the Hooks’ position.

II. The Battle of Alphen (October 22, 1425): A Rare Victory for Jacqueline

• As she waited for English reinforcements, Jacqueline’s forces clashed with a Burgundian army near Alphen, a strategic location in Holland.
• The Burgundians, mostly city militia, were not professional soldiers and struggled against the more experienced Hooks.
• Jacqueline’s army secured a decisive victory, temporarily weakening Burgundian control over the region.

III. Consequences and the Continuing War

• The victory at Alphen boosted morale among Jacqueline’s supporters and proved she could still challenge Burgundian authority.
• However, the arrival of Humphrey’s English reinforcements would soon escalate the conflict, drawing Burgundy and England closer to direct confrontation.
• Philip the Good would respond forcefully to the English intervention, ensuring that the struggle for Holland and Zeeland was far from over.

Jacqueline’s appeal to Humphrey and her victory at the Battle of Alphen briefly revived her resistance, but Burgundy’s growing power meant the war was still tilted in Philip the Good’s favor.

The Battle of Brouwershaven (January 13, 1426): A Devastating Defeat for Jacqueline of Bavaria

The Battle of Brouwershaven, fought on January 13, 1426, was a decisive Burgundian victory that crippled Jacqueline of Bavaria’s resistance and irreparably damaged the English-Burgundian alliance—a key relationship that had aided the English cause in France during the Hundred Years' War.

The battle unfolded as Jacqueline’s former husband, John IV, Duke of Brabant, sought to dispute her inheritance, prompting her current husband, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, to intervene with an English force. However, Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, was well-prepared, personally leading his superior Burgundian army against the English and Zeeland forces.

I. The English Expedition and Burgundian Countermeasure

• Humphrey of Gloucester, supporting Jacqueline, sent an English force to Zeeland, but Philip the Good had advanced warning and prepared a fleet to intercept them.
• The Burgundians succeeded in capturing a small detachment of 300 English soldiers, but most of the force landed safely at Brouwershaven, where they joined their Zeeland allies.

II. Forces and Initial Deployment

• The Burgundian Army (Philip the Good) – 4,000 troops

  • Feudal retainers of the Duke of Burgundy.
  • Municipal militia from Dordrecht, The Hague, and Delft.
  • Over 1,000 militia crossbowmen and gunners from Dordrecht.

• The Zeeland and English Forces – 4,200 troops

  • Zeelanders (3,000 men) led by the Lord of Heemstede.
  • English forces (1,200 men) led by Walter FitzWalter, 7th Baron FitzWalter.

• The Zeelanders allowed the Burgundians to land unopposed, possibly hoping for an Agincourt-style victory with English longbowmen providing support.

III. The Battle: A Crushing Burgundian Victory

• As Burgundian forces were still disembarking, the English launched an attack, advancing in formation with trumpets sounding.
• The Burgundian forces retaliated with cannon fire and volleys of crossbow bolts from their municipal militia, but English longbowmen held firm and fired back, scattering the crossbowmen.
• However, the Burgundian knights, heavily armored and well-disciplined, launched a devastating counterattack, engaging the English men-at-arms in close combat.
• The English and Zeeland forces were driven onto a dike and virtually wiped out.

IV. Casualties and Aftermath

• According to Janus Reygersberg’s Chronyk en Historie van Zeeland:
  • 3,000 Zeelanders were killed, and many others captured.
• Duke Philip himself reported capturing 200 English soldiers.
• Local noble losses:
  • The Lord of Heemstede was captured.
  • Baron FitzWalter managed to escape.

V. Consequences: A Catastrophic Blow to Jacqueline’s Cause

• The defeat at Brouwershaven was devastating for Jacqueline of Bavaria, as her military capabilities were crippled.
• The battle deepened tensions between England and Burgundy, undermining the Anglo-Burgundian alliance, which had been crucial to English ambitions in France.
• Philip the Good consolidated Burgundian control over Holland and Zeeland, ensuring that Jacqueline’s claim would be increasingly difficult to restore.

The Battle of Brouwershaven (1426) was a turning point, effectively ending English intervention in Jacqueline’s favor and securing Philip the Good’s dominance in the Low Countries.