Sadat's handpicked successor, Hosni Mubarak, is overwhelmingly approved in a national referendum on October 24, 1981.

Sadat had appointed Mubarak vice president of the state in 1975 and of the NDP in 1978.

Mubarak, who was born in 1928 in Lower Egypt and had spent his career in the armed forces, had not been a member of the Free Officers' movement.

He had trained as a pilot in the Soviet Union and became air force chief of staff in 1969 and deputy
minister of war in 1972.

In a speech to the People's Assembly in November 1981, Mubarak outlines the principles of his government's policy and spoke about the future he wants for Egypt.

Infitah will continue, and there will be no return to the restrictive days of Nasser.

Mubarak calls for an infitah of production, however, rather than of consumption, that will benefit all of society and not just the wealthy few.

Food subsidies will remain, and imports of unnecessary luxury goods will be curtailed.

Opposition parties will be allowed.

The peace treaty with Israel will be observed.

Thus, Mubarak seeks to chart a middle course between the conflicting legacies of Nasser and Sadat.

Muslim extremist rebel troops machine-gun the reviewing stand at a military parade in Cairo, murdering Sadat, killing seven others and wounding twenty-eight, on October 6, 1981. (The assassins will later be executed.)

Sadat's vice president and successor, Hosni Mubarak, reaffirms the 1979 treaty with Israel but is prepared only for a "cold" peace with the Jewish nation.

The Israeli invasion of southern Lebanon is viewed in Egypt as an Israeli attempt to destroy Palestinian nationalism, and President Hosni Mubarak is accused by his detractors of allowing Israel to take advantage of Egypt's position of disengagement.

Official relations with Israel are severely strained.

The Near East, 1984 to 1995 CE: Turmoil, Conflict, and Shifting Alliances

Sudan: Famine, Revolt, and Military Coups

In 1984 and 1985, Sudan faces a devastating famine exacerbated by drought, placing millions at severe risk, especially in the western regions. Despite the urgency, the Sudanese regime initially attempts to conceal the crisis from international scrutiny. Economic troubles worsen as negotiations with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) lead the government to announce price hikes for basic commodities, sparking widespread unrest.

In March 1985, widespread dissatisfaction triggers mass demonstrations and strikes, particularly in the capital city, Khartoum, but also across Sudan's major urban centers. On April 2, 1985, a unified front of eight unions demands a general political strike aimed explicitly at ending the existing regime. The movement rapidly escalates, culminating in massive demonstrations and an almost total paralysis of governmental institutions and economic activity.

Amidst the escalating turmoil, on April 6, 1985, Lieutenant General Abd ar Rahman Siwar adh Dhahab leads a Sudanese Military Coup, overthrowing President Jaafar Nimeiry, who flees to Egypt. A fifteen-member Transitional Military Council (TMC) assumes control, promising a return to civilian rule.

Unstable Civilian Governments and Renewed Military Rule

In June 1986, Sadiq al Mahdi forms a fragile coalition government comprising his Umma Party, the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), the National Islamic Front (NIF), and four southern parties. Despite initial hopes, Mahdi's government proves weak and ineffective, plagued by internal factionalism, corruption, and personal rivalries.

Facing persistent governmental paralysis, Sadiq al Mahdi dismisses his cabinet within a year, citing their failure to draft a new penal code to replace Sharia, reach agreements with the IMF, resolve the ongoing Second Sudanese Civil War, or attract essential remittances from expatriates. A subsequent coalition government also proves ineffective, further destabilizing the nation.

In 1989, as peace negotiations with southern rebels are underway, General Omar al-Bashir leads another military coup, establishing a junta uninterested in negotiation. Al-Bashir consolidates power, ultimately declaring himself president and setting the stage for prolonged authoritarian rule.

Egypt: Mubarak’s Economic Challenges

Under President Hosni Mubarak, Egypt continues balancing its diplomatic relationship with Israel and reducing tensions with Arab neighbors. Internally, however, the country faces severe socio-economic challenges. Despite growth in agricultural and industrial output, Egypt struggles to cope with rapid population growth, urban poverty, and rising unemployment. Massive rural-to-urban migration exacerbates these problems, leading to widespread urban poverty, particularly evident in sprawling slums surrounding Cairo.

Regional Instability and the Arab-Israeli Conflict

This era sees intensifying regional conflicts and significant geopolitical shifts. In Palestine, the First Intifada (1987–1993) dramatically escalates tensions between Palestinians and Israelis, prompting international concern and intervention. This uprising underscores Palestinian grievances against Israeli occupation and fuels increased militancy on both sides.

The persistent Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon (ongoing from 1985 to 2000) exacerbates regional instability, resulting in protracted clashes and fostering environments conducive to sustained violence.

Diplomatic efforts, notably the landmark Oslo Accords of 1993 and the subsequent Oslo II Accords in 1995, temporarily renew hopes for peace by outlining frameworks for Palestinian self-governance. Despite these efforts, continuing violence and mutual distrust hinder substantial progress. Related negotiations continue with the Wye River Memorandum (initiated in 1995), underscoring ongoing challenges in securing lasting peace.

Yemen and Broader Regional Dynamics

The Yemeni Civil War of 1994 emerges as another significant regional conflict, illustrating deep-seated internal divisions exacerbated by the aftermath of Yemen’s earlier North-South conflicts.

The Impact of the Cold War’s End

The global Cold War (1947–1991) significantly shapes regional dynamics until its conclusion in the early 1990s. The ideological rivalry and superpower interventions heavily influence local conflicts, alliances, and power structures. Its conclusion sees a realignment of regional strategies and political relationships, affecting both domestic and international policies throughout the Near East.

Legacy of the Era

From 1984 to 1995, the Near East is marked by severe humanitarian crises, political instability, and complex regional conflicts. These events underscore the enduring challenges faced by Sudan, Egypt, and their regional neighbors, laying foundations for further political, economic, and social turmoil in subsequent decades.

Hosni Mubarak reaffirms Egypt's relationship with Israel yet eases the tensions with Egypt's Arab neighbors.

Domestically, Mubarak faces serious problems.

Even though farm and industry output expands, the economy cannot keep pace with the population boom.

Mass poverty and unemployment lead rural families to stream into cities like Cairo, where they end up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive.

Hosni Mubarak has allowed more overt political activity in Egypt since 1981.

Slowly, parties and newspapers had begun to function again, and political opponents jailed by Sadat had been released.

At the time of the 1984 election, five parties are allowed to function in addition to the ruling NDP.

The left-wing opposition consists of the National Progressive Unionist Party, a grouping of socialists led by Khalid Muhi ad Din, and the Socialist Labor Party.

The Wafd resurfaces and wins a court case against its prohibition.

One religious party is licensed, the Umma.

Not officially represented are the communists, the Muslim Brotherhood, and avowed Nasserites, although all three tendencies are represented in other parties.

In Egypt's 1984 election, a party has to win at least eight percent of the vote to be represented in the Assembly.

The NDP receives more than seventy percent of the vote (three hundred and ninety-one seats).

The Wafd, the only other party to gain any seats, wins fifty-seven.

The NPUP receives only seven percent of the votes and consequently loses them all to the NDP.

There are some complaints that the election has been rigged, but no serious challenge is mounted against the results.

In addition to domestic programs, Hosni Mubarak is concerned to regain the Sinai Peninsula for Egypt and to return his country to the Arab fold.

One of Mubarak's first acts had been to pledge to honor the peace treaty with Israel.

In April 1982, the Israeli withdrawal from Sinai had taken place as scheduled. 

A multinational force of observers had taken up positions in Sinai to monitor the peace.

Egypt is allowed to station only one army division in Sinai.

In 1983 Egypt's isolation in the Arab world had begun to end.

In that year, Yasser Arafat had met Mubarak in Cairo after the PLO leader had been expelled from Lebanon under Syrian pressure.

Egyptian Security Police start rioting on February 25, 1986, protesting against reports that their term of duty is to be extended from three to four years.

Hotels, nightclubs, restaurants and casinos are attacked in Cairo and there are riots in other cities

A day time curfew is imposed.

It takes the army three days to restore order.

One hundred and seven people are killed.