A major colonial incident has meanwhile occurred in Southern Sudan.

The French, in a race with the British to claim territory in Cen­tral Africa, send an expeditionary force across Southern Sudan, arriving on the Nile at Fashoda, just north of modern Malakal, in July 1898 and claiming the Upper Nile region for France.

Following defeat of the Mahdi's army, Kitchener and his Anglo-Egyptian force march south along the Nile and confront  the French, provoking a major diplo­matic and military crisis.

In the negotiations that follow, the French decided that considerations in Europe outweigh those in Sudan and withdraw westward, leaving Britain in control of the Upper Nile basin.

From 1898, the United Kingdom and Egypt administer all of present-day Sudan as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, but northern and southern Sudan are administered as separate provinces of the condominium.

The Near East, 1888 to 1899 CE: British Reconquest of Sudan and Social Transformation in Egypt

Reconquest of Sudan and Defeat of the Mahdiyyah

Following the capture of Khartoum and the death of General Charles Gordon, the Mahdist regime (Mahdiyyah) under Khalifa Abdallahi ibn Muhammad consolidates control in Sudan, enforcing strict Islamic laws and establishing a centralized administration. However, the regime soon encounters economic collapse, famine, and widespread discontent.

In 1892, Herbert Kitchener (later Lord Kitchener) assumes command of the Egyptian army and begins preparations for the reconquest of Sudan, driven by British interests in securing control of the Nile waters and safeguarding Egypt’s irrigation infrastructure, particularly the proposed Aswan dam. By 1896, Kitchener launches the campaign, systematically defeating Mahdist forces at strategic locations, notably at Dongola, Atbarah, and eventually at the decisive Battle of Omdurman on September 2, 1898. The battle is overwhelmingly one-sided: about eleven thousand Mahdists perish compared to fewer than five hundred Anglo-Egyptian casualties.

Organized resistance in Sudan collapses completely following the Khalifa’s death at Umm Diwaykarat in November 1899. Sudan’s economy and population had already been devastated by warfare, famine, and disease during Mahdist rule, leaving the country severely weakened and its traditional social institutions disrupted.

Establishment of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium

In January 1899, the Anglo-Egyptian Agreement formally establishes joint British-Egyptian authority, known as the Condominium, over Sudan. Although the agreement ostensibly shares governance between Britain and Egypt, in practice, Britain holds dominant authority, appointing the Governor-General of Sudan and controlling critical administrative decisions. The first Governor-General under this arrangement, following Kitchener, is Sir Reginald Wingate.

British officials hold top administrative positions, Egyptian officials assume middle ranks, and Sudanese gradually occupy lower administrative posts. The Condominium structure allows Britain to maintain strategic control over Sudan and its resources while nominally preserving Egypt’s administrative involvement.

Societal Transformations and Urbanization in Egypt

At the close of the nineteenth century, Egypt undergoes significant urbanization and demographic changes. The urban population grows dramatically, driven primarily by rural-to-urban migration. Cities like Alexandria expand significantly due to their roles as commercial and financial hubs, particularly in cotton trading. New urban centers such as Az Zaqaziq and Port Said also emerge.

This urban growth coincides with the rise of a new, secularly educated middle class known as the effendiyah, who staff an expanding government bureaucracy. The effendiyah often come from families of rural notables (umada), transitioning to urban life and benefiting from educational and employment opportunities. Conversely, the traditional middle class, including the ulama (religious scholars) and merchants, declines due to the erosion of their economic foundations and the shift toward secular, Western-influenced institutions.

Changing Social Structures and Foreign Influence

The influx of European settlers and merchants, drawn by Egypt’s booming cotton economy, profoundly reshapes the social and economic landscape. Foreign residents benefit disproportionately from trade privileges under the Ottoman-era capitulations, dominating key economic sectors such as cotton exports, banking, and finance. This marginalizes Egyptian merchants, restricting them largely to domestic trade.

Simultaneously, Egypt’s artisan class declines sharply under competition from cheaper European manufactured imports. Traditional crafts and urban guild structures deteriorate significantly, with artisans frequently forced into poverty or unemployment.

Regional Dynamics and Emerging Tensions

Elsewhere in the region, the Ottoman Empire establishes small colonies of Circassian refugees in present-day Jordan, reflecting broader demographic shifts and imperial strategies. Concurrently, attempts at Jewish colonization in Palestine, notably backed by Baron Rothschild beginning in 1894, meet strong resistance from the local Arab population and restrictive Ottoman land laws.

Legacy of the Era: Imperial Consolidation and Social Upheaval

The era from 1888 to 1899 witnesses critical British imperial consolidation in Sudan through military reconquest and strategic administrative control under the Condominium arrangement. Concurrently, Egypt experiences profound socioeconomic transformations, including significant urbanization, the rise of a new bureaucratic middle class, and increasing foreign economic dominance. These developments lay the foundations for future nationalistic resistance and sociopolitical movements across the Near East.

The Anglo-Egyptian Agreement restores Egyptian rule in Sudan in January 1899 but as part of the Condominium, or joint authority, exer­cised by Britain and Egypt.

The agreement designates the territory south of the twenty-second parallel as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.

However, it fails to clarify the juridical relationship between the two Condominium powers or to provide a legal basis for continued British presence in the South.

The Governor-General of the Sudan, for example, is appointed by "Khedival Decree", rather than simply by the British Crown, but while maintaining the appearance of joint administration, the British Empire formulates policies, and supplies most of the top administrators.

The Khalifa commits his fifty-two thousand-man army to a frontal assault against the Anglo-Egyptian force massed on the plain outside Omdurman on September 2, 1898.

The outcome is never in doubt.

During the five­-hour battle, about eleven thousand Mahdists die, whereas Anglo-Egyptian losses amounted to forty-eight dead and fewer than four hundred wounded.

Mopping-up opera­tions will require several years, but organized resistance ends when the Khalifa dies in fighting at Umm Diwaykarat, in Kordofan, in November 1899.

Many Sudanese welcome his demise, as Sudan's economy has been all but destroyed during his reign and the population has declined by approximately one-half because of famine, disease, persecution, and warfare.

Moreover, none of the country's traditional institutions or loy­alties remain intact.

Mahdism has divided tribes, religious brother­hoods have been weakened, and orthodox religious leaders have vanished.

Article 2 of the Anglo-Egyptian Agreement specifies that "the supreme military and civil command in Sudan shall be vested in one officer, termed the Gov­ernor-General of Sudan. He shall be appointed by Khedival Decree on the recommendation of Her Britannic Majesty's Government and shall be removed only by Khedival Decree with the consent of Her Britannic Majesty's Government."

The British governor-general reports to the Foreign Office through its resident agent in Cairo.

In practice, how­ever, he exercises extraordinary powers and directs the Condomin­ium government from Khartoum as if it were a colonial administration.

Sir Reginald Wingate succeeds Kitchener as governor-general in 1899.

In each province, two inspectors and several district commissioners aid the governor

Initially, most administrative personnel are British army officers seconded to the Egyptian army.

Starting in 1901, however, British civilian administrators will form the nucleus of the Sudan Political Service.

Egyptians will fill middle-level posts, while Sudanese will gradually acquire lower-level positions.

Herbert Kitchener (later Lord Kitchener) assumes command of the Egyptian army in 1892 and begins preparations for the reconquest of Sudan.

The British decision to occupy Sudan results in part from international considerations.

By the 1890s, British, French, and Bel­gian territorial claims have converged at the Nile's headwaters.

Britain fears that other colonial powers will take advantage of Sudan's instability to acquire Sudanese territory previously annexed to Egypt.

Britain also wishes to secure control of the Nile's waters, upon which Egypt depends, and to safeguard a planned irrigation dam at Aswan.

The British government authorizes Kitchener to launch a campaign in 1895.

The Anglo-Egyptian Nile Expeditionary Force includes twenty-five thousand eight hundred men, eighty-six hundred of whom are British; the remainder belong to Egyptian units that include six battalions recruited in Southern Sudan.

An armed river flotilla escorts the force, which also has artillery support.

The British establish their headquarters at Wadi Halfa and extend their defenses around Sawakin.

Kitchener launches the campaign in March 1896.

In September he captures Dongola.

The British now build a rail­road from Wadi Halfa to Abu Hamad, and a southward extension parallel to the Nile as far as Barbar, to transport military forces.

Anglo-Egyptian units fight a sharp action at Abu Hamad, but there is little other sig­nificant resistance until Kitchener reaches Atbarah and defeatesthe Ansar.

Hereafter, Kitchener's soldiers march and sailed to Omdur­man, where the Khalifa makes his last stand.

General Herbert Lord Kitchener leads Britain’s Egyptian army in its reconquest of the Sudan from the Mahdists, winning the decisive Battle of Omdurman in 1898 and finally crushing the revolt.

The German-armed Boer Republicans score some initial victories, besieging the cities of Mafeking, Kimberley and Ladysmith, in what the Afrikaners call the Second War of Freedom.

Robert Baden-Powell holds Mafeking against the Boers for two hundred and seventeen days until British troops under Lords Roberts and Kitchener, his chief of staff, relieve the besieged cities.

The Near East, 1900 to 1911 CE: Rising Nationalism and Social Unrest

The Dinshawi Incident and Egyptian Nationalism

Egyptian nationalism intensifies significantly after the infamous Dinshawi Incident of 1906. British officers, while shooting pigeons near the Delta village of Dinshawi, accidentally wound the wife of the local imam. A confrontation erupts, resulting in injuries among both the villagers and British officers, with one officer dying from heatstroke as he attempts to return to his camp. British forces respond harshly, executing four villagers, sentencing others to imprisonment and public flogging, and brutally punishing suspects without fair trials. The severity and injustice of these actions galvanize public opinion, sparking widespread nationalist and anti-British sentiments throughout Egypt.

Emergence of Egyptian Political Parties

Egyptian political consciousness rapidly evolves in response to these events, leading to the establishment of political parties in 1907. Two major parties dominate the political landscape: the National Party (Al Hizb al Watani) led by the charismatic Mustafa Kamil, and the more moderate Umma Party (Al Hizb al Umma).

The National Party, strongly anti-British and immediately demanding full independence, attracts traditionalists and conservatives by emphasizing Islamic identity. Its publication, Al Liwa, amplifies nationalist rhetoric. Conversely, the Umma Party, led by influential figures such as Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, advocates gradual reform and cooperation with British authorities to achieve eventual independence. Their publication, Al Jaridah, promotes constitutional reform and social progress. The death of Mustafa Kamil in 1908 significantly weakens the National Party, though it continues as a symbol of uncompromising nationalism.

Labor Movements and Urban Social Change

Egypt's working-class movement emerges forcefully during this period. Poor working conditions, low wages, and the absence of government protections lead to numerous strikes and the formation of workers’ associations, notably among cigarette wrappers, railroad, and port workers. The National Party supports these labor actions by providing schools, publicity, and legal assistance, further intertwining labor activism with nationalist goals. Despite harsh repression, labor activism remains resilient, indicating a maturing political awareness among Egypt's working class.

British Administration and Societal Transformation

Egypt remains under firm British control, administered by a succession of influential British consuls general, notably Lord Cromer (1883–1907), Sir John Eldon Gorst (1907–1911), and subsequently Lord Herbert Kitchener (1911–1914). Cromer's autocratic rule prioritizes economic stability through fiscal austerity but neglects education and industry, fostering resentment among Egyptians.

His successor, Gorst, attempts conciliation by promoting moderate nationalism but fails due to both nationalist inflexibility and British reluctance to cede control. Lord Kitchener, arriving in 1911 with a reputation from his conquest of Sudan, introduces constitutional reforms in 1913, expanding representative institutions and offering limited political participation.

Governance and Stability in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

Under the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium in Sudan, governance structures solidify after initial instability. British authorities introduce formal legal and administrative frameworks, modeled partly on British India, to stabilize the region. They codify land tenure, taxation, and criminal law, establishing sharia courts staffed largely by Egyptian judges. Occasional Mahdist revolts flare briefly, notably in 1900, 1902–03, 1904, and 1908, yet are quickly suppressed. Governance is centralized under an executive council established in 1910, marking a transition to structured colonial administration.

Regional Tensions and Early Zionist Settlements

Throughout the Near East, tensions emerge amid Ottoman rule. The Ottoman authorities establish Circassian settlements in present-day Jordan, seeking to stabilize frontier regions. Simultaneously, the early stages of Zionist settlement unfold in Palestine, following the establishment of the Zionist Organization by Theodor Herzl in 1897. By the eve of the First World War, the Jewish population in Palestine rises significantly, fueling increasing local Arab resistance.

Legacy of the Era: Foundation of Modern Nationalism

The era from 1900 to 1911 sees the crystallization of Egyptian nationalism, driven by incidents like Dinshawi and the emergence of organized political parties and labor movements. Concurrently, British administrative policies reinforce economic stability but exacerbate political and social discontent. These years set the stage for intensified struggles over identity, independence, and governance, shaping the political trajectory of Egypt, Sudan, and the broader Near East for decades to come.