North Africa (688–699 CE)

Fall of Carthage, Berber Uprisings, and Consolidation of Umayyad Rule

Between 688 and 699 CE, the Arab-Islamic conquest of North Africa reaches a pivotal stage, marked by the final fall of the Byzantine stronghold of Carthage, intensified Berber resistance, and the broader consolidation of the Umayyad Caliphate in the region.

In 695 CE, after multiple earlier sieges and fierce resistance, Umayyad forces under commander Hassan ibn al-Nu'man launch a decisive assault on Carthage. The city, historically symbolic of Roman and Byzantine dominance in North Africa, falls definitively by 698 CE, marking the formal end of Byzantine rule in the region. The Umayyads systematically dismantle Carthage's defenses, transferring its administrative and commercial functions to the Arab-established city of Tunis, near the old Punic town site.

Yet despite this significant Arab victory, widespread Berber opposition continues unabated. The period witnesses major Berber-led revolts against Umayyad domination, notably spearheaded by Kusaila, the Berber leader previously allied with the Arabs. Kusaila repudiates his earlier allegiance due to perceived injustices and heavy taxation. Under his leadership, Berber forces successfully push Arab armies temporarily eastward, briefly reclaiming territories around Kairouan in 689 CE.

However, the Arabs regroup, leveraging alliances with recently converted Berber tribes in eastern regions such as Tripolitania, and successfully reassert their dominance by 693 CE, ultimately defeating and killing Kusaila. This shifting alliance demonstrates the complex dynamics between Arab conquerors and indigenous Berbers, with tribal groups frequently switching loyalties based on immediate interests and grievances.

Continuing Berber resistance remains formidable in mountainous and inland areas, notably the Aurès, home to fiercely independent tribes, and among groups such as the Austoriani, Leutae, and the aggressive Laguatan confederation. The pastoralist Arzuges tribes also persistently challenge Arab territorial consolidation efforts.

Despite such continued indigenous resistance, by 699 CE, the Umayyads firmly establish their political and military authority over the region, administratively organizing it as the province of Ifriqiya, governed from Kairouan. This administration becomes the cornerstone for further Arab expansion and cultural integration.

By the end of 699 CE, North Africa has entered a new historical era, characterized by the definitive end of Byzantine dominance, sustained Berber resistance, and the establishment of a robust Arab-Islamic administrative and cultural framework, which significantly reshapes the region’s future trajectory.

The Arabs have by 698 taken most of North Africa from the Empire.

The area is divided into three provinces: Egypt with its governor at al-Fustat, Ifriqiya with its governor at Kairouan, and the Maghreb (modern Morocco) with its governor at Tangiers.

The constant minor warfare between Damascus and the Constatinople, endemic since the peace of 679, breaks out into full scale war in spring 698, when the Muslim commander Hasan ibn al-Nu'man and a force of forty thousand men crushes Roman Carthage.

Many of its defenders are Visigoths sent to defend the Exarchate by their king, who also fears Muslim expansion.

Many Visigoths fight to the death; in the ensuing battle Roman Carthage is again reduced to rubble, as it had been centuries earlier by the Romans.

The loss of the mainland African Exarchate is an enormous blow to the Empire in the Western Mediterranean because both Carthage and Egypt have been Constantinople's main sources of manpower and grain.

It is also an enormous blow because it permanently ends the Roman presence in Africa.

North Africa (700–711 CE)

Umayyad Consolidation, Musa ibn Nusayr’s Campaigns, and Prelude to Andalusian Conquest

Between 700 and 711 CE, the Umayyad Caliphate solidifies its rule across North Africa, overcoming local resistance, reorganizing administrative structures, and preparing the groundwork for further westward expansion into the Iberian Peninsula.

With Byzantine authority fully extinguished following the definitive fall of Carthage in 698 CE, the Umayyads, based at Kairouan (Al Qayrawan), firmly establish the province of Ifriqiya, encompassing present-day Tunisia, eastern Algeria, and western Libya. Hassan ibn al-Nu'man, the Umayyad governor, systematically pacifies resistance in coastal urban centers and undertakes rebuilding efforts to stabilize the newly conquered territories.

However, Berber resistance continues to challenge Umayyad control, especially in inland and mountainous regions. Tribes in the rugged Aurès Mountains, including the fiercely independent Austoriani and Leutae, consistently oppose centralized Arab governance, while pastoralist tribes of Arzugitana and the aggressive Laguatan confederation maintain resistance through persistent raiding and disruption of Arab supply lines.

In 703 CE, the Umayyad caliph appoints Musa ibn Nusayr as the new governor of Ifriqiya. Musa embarks on aggressive military campaigns designed to definitively suppress persistent Berber revolts and extend Arab control across the Maghreb. Under Musa’s leadership, Arab forces secure territories further westward, penetrating deeply into modern-day Algeria and Morocco, significantly expanding Arab political and military influence.

Musa’s approach combines military strength with pragmatic diplomacy, notably fostering alliances with key Berber groups through fairer taxation policies, equitable treatment, and greater integration into Arab military ranks. This strategy gradually stabilizes Umayyad rule, winning many Berbers to active participation in future campaigns.

Economic activity and trade flourish during this period, driven by improved regional stability and revitalized Mediterranean commerce. The reorganization of agriculture and trade routes bolsters urban economies, particularly in revitalized coastal cities such as Tunis. Simultaneously, Saharan trade, managed by powerful Tuareg and other Berber tribes, remains economically critical, maintaining essential trans-Saharan commercial networks connecting sub-Saharan Africa with the Mediterranean.

Religious transformation accelerates during these years as Islam continues to permeate indigenous Berber societies. However, localized traditions and cultural identities remain resilient, laying the groundwork for the complex integration of Berber and Arab-Islamic culture.

By the end of 711 CE, Musa ibn Nusayr’s successful military and diplomatic efforts have positioned North Africa as a stable, strategically vital Umayyad province. This stability and the recruitment of Berber forces set the stage for the upcoming Umayyad conquest of Visigothic Hispania, initiating the historical era known as Al-Andalus.

Hasan ibn al-Nu'man had been sent in 692 to continue the Islamic conquest in North Africa all the way to Morocco.

However, his policies were quite strict and he did not tolerate Berber traditions.

He was relieved of his command for allowing continuing imperial attacks.

Musa bin Nusayr had then been sent to renew the attacks against the Berbers, but he has not imposed Islam by force, rather, he respects Berber traditions and uses diplomacy in subjugating them.

This proves highly successful, as many Berbers convert to Islam and even enter his army as soldiers and officers, possibly including Tariq bin Ziyad, who will lead the later Islamic expedition in Iberia.

Musa had been made the governor of Ifriqiya in 698, charged with the responsibility for completing the conquest of North Africa and of the Balearic Islands and Sardinia.

He is the first governor of Ifriqiya not to be subordinate to the governor of Egypt.

He is the first Muslim general to take Tangiers and occupy it; his troops have also conquered the Sous, effectively taking control of all of modern Morocco.

He also has to deal with constant harassment from the imperial navy and he builds a navy that will go on to conquer the islands of Ibiza, Majorca, and Minorca.

After a defeat by the Berber warrior queen al-Kahina, he had retired to Libya for several years, then returns to Ifriqiya and kills al-Kahina in battle.

This effectively brings Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia and eastern Algeria) under Arab control.