Northeast Europe (1768–1779 CE): Political Realignment, Enlightened Reform, and Economic Expansion

Between 1768 and 1779 CE, Northeast Europe entered a period marked by political realignments, substantial economic growth, internal administrative reforms, and sustained cultural flourishing influenced by Enlightenment ideals. During this era, Sweden transitioned from its parliamentary-based Age of Liberty toward renewed royal authority, Denmark–Norway implemented enlightened reforms under new leadership, Prussia solidified its strength under Frederick the Great, and the Baltic territories—including Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania—experienced steady stabilization and growth.

Sweden: From Parliamentary Factionalism to Gustavian Absolutism

Sweden, concluding its parliamentary-led Age of Liberty, experienced significant internal political shifts during this period. The previously dominant Hat and Cap parties had increasingly shown limitations, both domestically and in foreign affairs. This political instability culminated in the royal coup of 1772, led by King Gustav III (r. 1771–1792), who decisively ended parliamentary dominance and restored royal authority through the promulgation of a new constitution known as the Instrument of Government (1772). Gustav’s absolutist reforms were influenced by Enlightenment ideals, promoting efficiency, economic reform, and cultural patronage, significantly reshaping Swedish political structures and revitalizing national unity.

Denmark–Norway: Enlightened Reforms under Johann Friedrich Struensee

Under the mentally unstable Christian VII (r. 1766–1808), Denmark–Norway underwent profound internal transformations. From 1770–1772, the German physician and minister Johann Friedrich Struensee effectively ruled as de facto regent. Struensee introduced sweeping reforms influenced by Enlightenment principles, including the abolition of censorship, rationalization of the government bureaucracy, judicial modernization, economic liberalization, and improved social welfare measures. Although his reforms proved controversial, and he was ultimately overthrown and executed in 1772, many of his initiatives had lasting impacts, contributing to greater administrative efficiency and socioeconomic modernization.

Prussian Consolidation and Enlightenment Governance

In Prussia, King Frederick II (Frederick the Great) (r. 1740–1786) continued enlightened administrative, economic, and military reforms, firmly establishing Prussia’s strength and stability. Frederick expanded economic and agricultural productivity, improved administrative efficiency, and reinforced military readiness. His enlightened reforms in areas such as education, justice, agriculture, and governance significantly strengthened the Prussian territories, including the strategically important exclave of Königsberg (Kaliningrad), thus reinforcing Prussia’s dominant regional position.

Economic Prosperity and Urban Development

Economic prosperity characterized the major urban centers of Northeast Europe, including Stockholm, Copenhagen, Königsberg, Riga, and Reval (Tallinn). Stable governance, improved infrastructure, and increased investment in maritime commerce facilitated robust growth. Merchant networks thrived, especially in Danish and Swedish Baltic trade, and urban economic integration with broader European markets intensified.

Finland: Internal Stability and Agricultural Productivity

Finland, still part of the Swedish kingdom, enjoyed sustained internal stability and continued improvements in agriculture and commerce. The application of scientific agriculture, drawing partly on earlier innovations such as those introduced by Eva Ekeblad, improved food security and economic well-being, despite lingering external geopolitical pressures.

Stability and Development in the Baltic Territories

The Baltic territories—Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania—maintained internal stability and gradual economic expansion. Baltic-German nobility continued to dominate regional governance, ensuring continuity and stability. Urban centers, notably Riga and Reval, prospered through strengthened commerce, cultural patronage, and local educational advancements influenced by broader Enlightenment trends.

Cultural and Intellectual Advancements

Cultural and educational institutions across Northeast Europe thrived during this era. Sweden’s King Gustav III notably became a generous patron of the arts, founding institutions like the Royal Swedish Opera (Kungliga Operan) in 1773. Danish-Norwegian universities and academies continued to promote Enlightenment thought, while in Prussia, intellectual and educational reforms further enhanced academic prestige. Throughout the region, Enlightenment ideas significantly influenced social reforms, governance, education, and cultural life.

Diplomatic Stability and Pragmatic Realignments

Diplomatic relations across Northeast Europe during this period were characterized by cautious realignment and pragmatic neutrality. Sweden and Denmark–Norway, navigating their political transformations, maintained peaceful external policies, avoiding major military entanglements. Prussia continued its diplomatic prudence under Frederick II, avoiding destabilizing regional conflicts while consolidating its European diplomatic standing.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 1768 to 1779 CE proved transformative for Northeast Europe, witnessing substantial political realignments, enlightened governance, cultural patronage, and sustained economic expansion. Sweden’s shift toward Gustavian absolutism reshaped political dynamics, while Denmark–Norway’s brief yet impactful Struensee reforms modernized administrative structures. Prussia’s continued internal strengthening firmly positioned it as a resilient European power. Collectively, these developments significantly influenced the region’s socioeconomic trajectory, diplomatic relationships, and cultural evolution into subsequent historical periods.

Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden, is little more than a figurehead, the real power being lodged in the hands of the Riksdag of the Estates, often distracted by party strife.

Twice he endeavors to free himself from the tutelage of the estates.

The first occasion had been in 1756 when, stimulated by his imperious consort Louisa Ulrika of Prussia (sister of Frederick the Great), he had tried to regain a portion of the attenuated prerogative through the Coup of 1756, and nearly lost his throne in consequence.

On the second occasion during the December Crisis (1768), under the guidance of his eldest son, the crown prince Gustav, afterwards Gustav III of Sweden, he succeeds in overthrowing the "Cap" senate, but is unable to make any use of his victory.

French envoy to Sweden Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil had in 1767 suggested a coup to increase royal power to the Hovpartiet (English: The Royal Court Party), the name for a political group in Sweden during the age of liberty.

The Hovpartiet, in existence in one form or another since 1723, seeks to strengthen royal power against the parliament of the Riksdag of the Estates.

It is most known in history as the force behind Queen Louisa Ulrika's Coup of 1756.

During the early 1760s, Hovpartiet had allied with the Caps (party).

After the election of 1765, it had  allied with the defeated Hats (party).

At this point, it has only followers among the nobility in the Riksdag of the Estates.

During this time, it is led by Fredrik Carl Sinclair in parliament.

Queen Louisa Ulrika had lost her leading position within the party after 1766 in favor of crown prince Gustav.

In December 1768, the king refuses to sign state documents in protest to his limited power and on  December 15, the king formally resigns his throne in order to bring about the gathering of a new Riksdag, during which a reform to increase his capacity can be introduced.

This creates a difficult political situation, as he has hereby technically abdicated and the nation is in interregnum.

The Hovpartiet suggests that the crisis can be used to stage a coup to establish absolute monarchy.

The queen opposes because she does not consider the time right for such a step and advocated negotiation with the Hats  and the Caps, but at this point, the Hovpartiet for the first time turns to the Crown Prince rather than the queen; however, the crisis cannot be used for a coup because the Caps party breaks an agreement.

On December 20, the government agrees to assemble the Riksdag and promises new reforms, and the king thereby agrees to retake the throne: the crisis is hereby averted and the government can function again.

The Riksdag was however not assembled until 1769, and it did not give the royal house more than an increased allowance.

Adolf Frederick, King of Sweden from 1751, dies on February 12, 1771, after having consumed a meal consisting of lobster, caviar, sauerkraut, kippers and champagne, which was topped off with fourteen servings of his favorite dessert: semla stuffed with almond paste and served in a bowl of hot cream.

His son succeeds him as Gustav III.

At the time, however, Gustav is unaware of this, since he is abroad in Paris.

The news of his father's death will reach him about a month later.

Gustav, the son of Swedish King Adolf Frederick, is in Paris, where he carries both the court and the city by storm, from February 4 to March 25, 1771.

The poets and the philosophers pay him enthusiastic homage, and distinguished women testify to his superlative merits.

With many of them he will maintain a lifelong correspondence.

His visit to the French capital is, however, no mere pleasure trip; it is also a political mission.

Confidential agents from the Swedish court had already prepared the way for him, and the Duke of Choiseul, the retired Chief Minister, resolves to discuss with him the best method of bringing about a revolution in France's ally, Sweden.

Before he departs, the French government undertakes to pay the outstanding subsidies to Sweden unconditionally, at the rate of one and a half million livres annually.

Count de Vergennes, one of the most prominent French diplomats, is transferred from Constantinople to Stockholm.

On his way home, Gustav pays a short visit to his uncle, Frederick the Great, at Potsdam.

Frederick bluntly informs his nephew that, in concert with Russia and Denmark, he has guaranteed the integrity of the existing Swedish constitution; he advises the young monarch to play the part of mediator and abstain from violence.

Gustav had first intervened actively in politics during the December Crisis (1768), when he compelled the dominant Cap faction, which mainly represents the interests of the peasantry and clergy, to summon an extraordinary diet from which he hoped for the reform of the constitution in way that would increase the power of the crown, but the victorious Hat party, which mainly represents the interests of the aristocracy and military establishment, refuses to redeem the pledges that they had given before the previous elections.  

Gustav has found greater success abroad.

Gustav III, on his return to Sweden, tries to mediate between the bitterly divided Hat and Cap parties.

On June 21, 1771, he opens his first Riksdag with a speech that arouses powerful emotions.

It is the first time in more than a century that a Swedish king addresses a Swedish Riksdag in its native tongue.

He stresses the need for all parties to sacrifice their animosities for the common good, and volunteers, as "the first citizen of a free people," to be the mediator between the contending factions.

A composition committee is actually formed, but it proves illusory from the first: the patriotism of neither Hat nor Cap faction is sufficient for the smallest act of self-denial.

The subsequent attempts of the dominant Caps to reduce him to a roi fainéant (a powerless king), encourages him to consider a coup d'état.

Both the ascending Russian Empire and pre-revolutionary France aspire  to have Sweden as a client state.

Parliamentarians and others with influence are susceptible to taking bribes that they did their best to increase.

The integrity and the credibility of the political system wanes, and in 1772 the young and charismatic king Gustav III staged a coup d'état, abolished parliamentarism and reinstated royal power in Sweden—more or less with the support of the parliament.

A new Constitution is read to the estates and unanimously accepted by them.

The diet is then dissolved, and Gustav begins his rule as an enlightened despot.

Gustav III's coup d'état thus ends Sweden's Age of Liberty, the half-century long experiment with a parliamentary system and increasing civil rights in the period from Charles XII's death in 1718.

Sweden, under the sway of the Cap faction, seems in danger of falling prey to the political ambitions of Russia.

It appears on the point of being absorbed into the Northern Accord sought by the Russian vice-chancellor, Count Nikita Panin.

It seems to many that only a swift and sudden coup d'état can preserve Sweden's independence.

At this juncture Gustav III is approached by Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten, a Finnish nobleman, who has incurred the enmity of the Caps, with the prospect of a revolution.

He undertakes to seize the fortress of Sveaborg in Finland by a coup de main.

Once Finland is secured, he intends to embark for Sweden, join up with the king and his friends near Stockholm, and force the estates to accept a new constitution dictated by the king.

The plotters are reinforced by Johan Christopher Toll, another victim of Cap oppression.

Toll proposes to raise a second revolt in the province of Scania, and to secure the southern fortress of Kristianstad.

After some debate, it is agreed that Kristianstad should openly declare against the government a few days after the Finnish revolt had begun.

Duke Charles (Karl), the eldest of the king's brothers, will thereupon be forced to mobilize the garrisons of all the southern fortresses hastily, ostensibly to crush the revolt at Kristianstad, but on arriving in front of the fortress, he is to make common cause with the rebels and march upon the capital from the south while Sprengtporten attacks it simultaneously from the east.

The entire revolutionary enterprise is underwritten with loans procured from the French financier Nicolas Beaujon, arranged by the Swedish ambassador to France, Count Creutz.

Toll succeeds in winning the fortress of Kristianstad on August 6, 1772, by sheer bluff, and ...

Sprengtporten succeeds in surprising Sveaborg on August 16, but contrary winds prevents him from crossing to Stockholm.

Events will soon occur there that make his presence unnecessary in any case.

The Cap leader, Ture Rudbeck, arrives at Stockholm on August 16 with news of the insurrection in the south, and Gustav finds himself isolated in the midst of enemies.

Sprengtporten lies weather-bound in Finland, Toll is five hundred miles away, and the Hat leaders are in hiding.

Gustav hereupon resolves to strike the decisive blow without waiting for Sprengtporten's arrival.
He acts promptly.

On the evening of  August 18, all the officers whom he thinks he can trust receive secret instructions to assemble in the great square facing the arsenal on the following morning.

At ten o'clock on August 19, Gustav mounts his horse and rides to the arsenal.

On the way, his adherents join him in little groups, as if by accident, so that by the time he reaches his destination he had about two hundred officers in his suite.

After parade he reconducts them to the guard-room in the north western wing of the palace, where the Guard of Honor has its headquarters, and unfolds his plans to them.

Gustav now dictates a new oath of allegiance, and everyone signs it without hesitation.

It absolves them from their allegiance to the estates, and binds them solely to obey "their lawful king, Gustav III".

Meanwhile, the Privy Council and its president, Rudbeck, have been arrested and the fleet secured.

Gustav makes a tour of the city and is everywhere received by enthusiastic crowds, who hail him as a deliverer.

On the evening of August 20, heralds roam the streets proclaiming that the estates are to meet at the palace on the following day; every deputy absenting himself will be regarded as the enemy of his country and his king.

On  August 21, the king appears in full regalia.

Taking his seat on the throne, he delivers his famous philippic, viewed as one of the masterpieces of Swedish oratory, in which he reproaches the estates for their unpatriotic venality and license in the past.

A new constitution, the Instrument of Government, is read to the estates and unanimously accepted by them.

The diet is now dissolved.