Henry and Fernando attack Tangier and meet with disaster; Henry has shown poor generalship and mismanaged the enterprise.

The Portuguese army would have been unable to reembark had not Fernando been left as hostage.

Henry had offered himself as hostage, but as the army had refused to lose its commander, Fernando remains in captivity.

The 1437 Expedition Against Tangier: A Costly Disaster

By 1437, Portugal's occupation of Ceuta (since 1415) had failed to deliver the economic rewards expected. Instead of controlling lucrative West African trade routes, Ceuta became a costly military liability, constantly under siege by Muslim forces.

In response, Prince Henry the Navigator and his younger brother, Prince Fernando, proposed a military expedition against Tangier, hoping that:

• Capturing Tangier would secure Ceuta, preventing future attacks.
• The city could serve as a new commercial hub, providing economic returns to justify Portuguese presence in North Africa.

Despite King Edward’s reluctance, Henry and Fernando persuaded him to approve the campaign.

Opposition from Prince Peter

• Prince Peter, the second son of John I, strongly opposed the expedition.
• He believed Portugal’s true mission lay in maritime exploration, not in military campaigns in North Africa.
• Peter saw further discoveries along the African coast as the key to economic growth and Christian expansion, rather than continued warfare with the Moors.
• His warnings would prove correct, as the Tangier campaign turned into a disastrous failure.

The Siege of Tangier (1437) and Portuguese Defeat

• Henry led the Portuguese forces, consisting of around 6,000 men, in a poorly planned assault on Tangier.
• The Marinid defenders, reinforced by forces from Fez, outnumbered and overwhelmed the Portuguese army.
• Facing defeat and starvation, Henry negotiated a surrender:
  • The Portuguese agreed to return Ceuta in exchange for safe passage.
  • Prince Fernando was taken hostage by the Moroccans as a guarantee of Portuguese withdrawal.

The Aftermath: Fernando’s Tragic Fate and Political Fallout

• King Edward faced a dilemma: Should Portugal abandon Ceuta to free Prince Fernando, or hold on to the city and leave his brother in captivity?
• The nobility and clergy pressured Edward to keep Ceuta, fearing it would discredit Portugal if they surrendered it.
• As a result, Fernando remained a captive in Fez, where he died in 1443, earning him the title "the Holy Prince" (Infante Santo).

The Expedition’s Consequences

1. Weakened the Portuguese Monarchy – The failure discredited King Edward, and his early death in 1438 led to a political crisis over the regency.
2. Delayed Further African Exploration – The disastrous campaign diverted resources and focus from exploration, delaying Portuguese maritime expansion.
3. Strengthened Prince Peter’s Influence – His anti-Tangier stance was vindicated, reinforcing the argument that Portugal’s future lay at sea, not in North African conquests.

Despite this failure, Portugal eventually resumed exploration, leading to the discovery of West African trade routes, which proved far more lucrative than North African military campaigns.

The Death of King Edward and the Regency Struggle (1438–1448)

King Edward of Portugal (Duarte I, r. 1433–1438), a scholarly and deeply moral ruler, earned the title "the philosopher-king" and authored O Leal Conselheiro ("The Loyal Counselor"), a reflection on ethics and governance. His reign, however, was overshadowed by the disastrous 1437 Tangier expedition, which led to the capture of his youngest brother, Prince Fernando ("the Holy Prince").

Grief-stricken and weakened by the plague, Edward died in Tomar on September 9, 1438, before his brother Henry the Navigator could return from North Africa. His six-year-old son, Afonso V, became king—the third consecutive ruler from the House of Avis, also known as the Joanina (Johannine) dynasty.

The Regency Crisis: Pedro vs. Leonor (1438–1439)

Since Afonso V was only six, a regent was needed, and two rival factions emerged:

1. Infante Pedro, Duke of Coimbra

   • Second son of King John I, experienced in governance.
   • Supported by the Portuguese nobility and urban elites.
   • Advocated royal centralization and continued overseas expansion.

2. Queen Mother Leonor of Aragon

   • Opposed Pedro’s regency, fearing he would sideline her influence.
   • Sought to govern herself or install Henry the Navigator as regent.
   • Deeply unpopular in Lisbon, where the people distrusted foreign influence.

Henry the Navigator’s Neutral Role

• Henry had no desire to rule and sought to avoid the family conflict.
• He attempted to mediate peace between Pedro and Leonor, but failed.
• Instead, he supported Pedro, recognizing his governing abilities.

Resolution of the Crisis (1439)

• The Lisbon populace opposed Leonor, favoring Pedro as regent.
• The Cortes of 1439 formally appointed Pedro as Regent of Portugal.
• Queen Leonor, facing overwhelming opposition, left the country, easing tensions.

Pedro’s Regency (1439–1448)

• As regent, Pedro focused on:
  • Strengthening royal authority over the aristocracy.
  • Protecting Portuguese maritime expansion.
  • Educating young Afonso V, preparing him for kingship.

However, his regency would ultimately lead to conflict with the nobility, particularly with the House of Bragança, culminating in the Battle of Alfarrobeira (1449).

Thus, the death of Edward in 1438 led to a tense power struggle, but also allowed Prince Henry the Navigator to return to Sagres and focus on exploration, shaping Portugal’s future maritime dominance.