The Near East, 1900 to 1911 CE: Rising Nationalism and Social Unrest

The Dinshawi Incident and Egyptian Nationalism

Egyptian nationalism intensifies significantly after the infamous Dinshawi Incident of 1906. British officers, while shooting pigeons near the Delta village of Dinshawi, accidentally wound the wife of the local imam. A confrontation erupts, resulting in injuries among both the villagers and British officers, with one officer dying from heatstroke as he attempts to return to his camp. British forces respond harshly, executing four villagers, sentencing others to imprisonment and public flogging, and brutally punishing suspects without fair trials. The severity and injustice of these actions galvanize public opinion, sparking widespread nationalist and anti-British sentiments throughout Egypt.

Emergence of Egyptian Political Parties

Egyptian political consciousness rapidly evolves in response to these events, leading to the establishment of political parties in 1907. Two major parties dominate the political landscape: the National Party (Al Hizb al Watani) led by the charismatic Mustafa Kamil, and the more moderate Umma Party (Al Hizb al Umma).

The National Party, strongly anti-British and immediately demanding full independence, attracts traditionalists and conservatives by emphasizing Islamic identity. Its publication, Al Liwa, amplifies nationalist rhetoric. Conversely, the Umma Party, led by influential figures such as Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, advocates gradual reform and cooperation with British authorities to achieve eventual independence. Their publication, Al Jaridah, promotes constitutional reform and social progress. The death of Mustafa Kamil in 1908 significantly weakens the National Party, though it continues as a symbol of uncompromising nationalism.

Labor Movements and Urban Social Change

Egypt's working-class movement emerges forcefully during this period. Poor working conditions, low wages, and the absence of government protections lead to numerous strikes and the formation of workers’ associations, notably among cigarette wrappers, railroad, and port workers. The National Party supports these labor actions by providing schools, publicity, and legal assistance, further intertwining labor activism with nationalist goals. Despite harsh repression, labor activism remains resilient, indicating a maturing political awareness among Egypt's working class.

British Administration and Societal Transformation

Egypt remains under firm British control, administered by a succession of influential British consuls general, notably Lord Cromer (1883–1907), Sir John Eldon Gorst (1907–1911), and subsequently Lord Herbert Kitchener (1911–1914). Cromer's autocratic rule prioritizes economic stability through fiscal austerity but neglects education and industry, fostering resentment among Egyptians.

His successor, Gorst, attempts conciliation by promoting moderate nationalism but fails due to both nationalist inflexibility and British reluctance to cede control. Lord Kitchener, arriving in 1911 with a reputation from his conquest of Sudan, introduces constitutional reforms in 1913, expanding representative institutions and offering limited political participation.

Governance and Stability in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan

Under the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium in Sudan, governance structures solidify after initial instability. British authorities introduce formal legal and administrative frameworks, modeled partly on British India, to stabilize the region. They codify land tenure, taxation, and criminal law, establishing sharia courts staffed largely by Egyptian judges. Occasional Mahdist revolts flare briefly, notably in 1900, 1902–03, 1904, and 1908, yet are quickly suppressed. Governance is centralized under an executive council established in 1910, marking a transition to structured colonial administration.

Regional Tensions and Early Zionist Settlements

Throughout the Near East, tensions emerge amid Ottoman rule. The Ottoman authorities establish Circassian settlements in present-day Jordan, seeking to stabilize frontier regions. Simultaneously, the early stages of Zionist settlement unfold in Palestine, following the establishment of the Zionist Organization by Theodor Herzl in 1897. By the eve of the First World War, the Jewish population in Palestine rises significantly, fueling increasing local Arab resistance.

Legacy of the Era: Foundation of Modern Nationalism

The era from 1900 to 1911 sees the crystallization of Egyptian nationalism, driven by incidents like Dinshawi and the emergence of organized political parties and labor movements. Concurrently, British administrative policies reinforce economic stability but exacerbate political and social discontent. These years set the stage for intensified struggles over identity, independence, and governance, shaping the political trajectory of Egypt, Sudan, and the broader Near East for decades to come.

There are three British agents and consuls general in Egypt between 1883 and the outbreak of the First World War in 1914: Lord Cromer (1883-1907), Sir John Eldon Gorst (1907-11), and Lord Herbert Kitchener (1911-14).

Cromer is an autocrat whose control over Egypt is more absolute than that of any Mamluk or
khedive.

Cromer believes his first task is to achieve financial solvency for Egypt.

He services the debt, balances the budget, and spends what money remains after debt payments on agriculture, irrigation, and railroads.

He neglects industry and education, a policy that becomes a political issue in the country.

He brings in British officials to staff the bureaucracy.

This policy, too, is controversial because it prevents Egyptian civil servants from rising to the top of their fields.

Gorst, who is less autocratic than Cromer, has to face a growing Egyptian nationalism that demands British evacuation from the country.

Gorst's attempt to create a "moderate" nationalism ultimately fails because the nationalists refuse to make any compromises over independence and because Britain considers any concession to the nationalists a sign of weakness.

Cotton constitutes ninety percent of Egypt's exports by 1914.

To the British, who control Egypt's financial and economic life, ensuring Egypt's prosperity and its ability to service its debt means expanding Egypt's reliance on cotton production.

Some British officials have more personal reasons for their interest in the production and export of cotton. Some are landowners; some are involved in the marketing of the crop; and some, like Lord Cromer, have made huge fortunes from cotton speculation.

Anglo-Egyptian trade policy is based on free trade, which favors the more industrialized nations whose products undersell those produced locally.

Lord Cromer himself describes the effects of the import of European manufactures on local craft production.

He notes that quarters of the city that had been "hives of busy workmen" have shrunk or been eliminated entirely. Cafes and small stores selling European goods replace productive workshops.

Egyptian industrialization will require protective tariffs that the British will not allow.

Thus, although Egypt has a solid infrastructure, a sizeable local market, and an indigenous supply of capital, industrial development is stymied by a British trade policy that seeks to protect the Egyptian market for British products and to maintain Britain's near monopoly on Egyptian cotton.