Maria Theresa (1740-80) faces an immediate challenge from Prussia's Frederick II when she becomes head of the House of Habsburg.

In 1741 she appears before the Hungarian Diet holding her newborn son and entreats Hungary's nobles to support her.

They stand behind her and help secure her rule.

Maria Theresa later takes measures to reinforce links with Hungary's magnates.

She establishes special schools to attract Hungarian nobles to Vienna.

During her reign, the members of the magnate class lose their Hungarian national identity, including their knowledge of the Hungarian language.

The Habsburg allies, despite early victories by the Austro-English alliance, are unable to install the Austrian Archduke Charles on the Spanish throne.

As the war drags on, the alliance begins to unravel, especially when, after the death of Leopold's elder son, Charles becomes Holy Roman Emperor in 1711.

The actual unification of the Habsburg lines in Charles VI (r. 1711-40) poses a greater threat to other European powers than does the possible union of war-weakened France and Spain.

Austria's allies make peace with France in 1713 and sign the Treaty of Utrecht.

Because his former allies negotiate a treaty to protect their own interests, the settlement Charles receives when he finally abandons the war in 1714 is meager: the Spanish Netherlands (present-day Belgium) and various Italian territories.

The Habsburg Empire continues to expand in the east at Turkish expense, but Charles VI recognizes that defense of Austria's position in Europe requires greater economic and political centralization to foster the development of a stronger economic base.

Because he lacks a male heir, however, the continued unity of the Habsburg Empire is jeopardized.

In 1713 Charles promulgates the Pragmatic Sanction to establish the legal basis for transmission of the Habsburg lands to his daughter Maria Theresa (r. 1740-80).

The price extracted by local diets and rival European powers for approval of the Pragmatic Sanction, however, is abandonment of many centralizing reforms.

Nonetheless, Charles's concessions does not prevent the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48) from breaking out on his death in 1740.

Prussia occupies Bohemia's Silesian duchies this same year.

Late in 1741, the elector-prince of Bavaria, Charles Albert, occupies Prague, the capital of Bohemia, with the aid of Saxon and French troops and is crowned king of Bohemia.

This paves the way for his election as Holy Roman Emperor in 1742, thus breaking the Habsburgs' three-hundred-year hold on the imperial crown.

Leopold I (1656-1705) defeats the Turks and paves the way for the restoration of the Kingdom of Hungary to its previous territorial dimensions.

The brief reign of Joseph I (1705-11) is followed by that of Charles VI (1711-40).

Between 1720 and 1725, Charles concludes a series of treaties by which the various estates of the Habsburg lands recognize the unity of the territory under Habsburg rule and accept hereditary Habsburg succession, including the female line.

The struggle between the Bohemian estates and Habsburg absolutism results in the complete subordination of the Bohemian estates to Habsburg interests.

In the aftermath of the defeat at White Mountain, the Czechs had lost their native noble class, their reformed religion, and a vibrant Czech Protestant culture.

With the influx of foreigners, primarily Germans, the German language has become more prominent in government and polite society.

It seems that Bohemia is destined to become a mere province of the Habsburg realm.

Leopold's successor, Charles VI (1711-40), begins building a workable relationship with Hungary after the Treaty of Szatmar.

Charles needs the Hungarian Diet's approval for the Pragmatic Sanction, under which the Habsburg monarch is to rule Hungary not as emperor but as a king subject to the restraints of Hungary's constitution and laws.

He hopes that the Pragmatic Sanction will keep the Habsburg Empire intact if his daughter, Maria Theresa, succeeds him.

The Diet approves the Pragmatic Sanction in 1723, and Hungary thus agrees to become a hereditary monarchy under the Habsburgs for as long as their dynasty existed.

In practice, however, Charles and his successors govern almost autocratically, controlling Hungary's foreign affairs, defense, and finance but lacking the power to tax the nobles without their approval.

The Habsburgs also maintain Transylvania's separation from Hungary.

Charles organizes Hungary's first modern, centralized administration and in 1715 establishes a standing army under his command, which is entirely funded and manned by the non-noble population.

This policy reduces the nobles' military obligation without abrogating their exemption from taxation.

Charles also bans conversion to Protestantism, requires civil servants to profess Catholicism, and forbids Protestant students to study abroad.

Hungary experiences further economic decline under Charles and Maria Theresa.

Centuries of Ottoman occupation, rebellion, and war have reduced Hungary's population drastically, and large parts of the country's southern half are almost deserted.

A labor shortage develops as landowners restore their estates.

In response, the Habsburgs begin to colonize Hungary with large numbers of peasants from all over Europe, especially Slovaks, Serbs, Croatians, and Germans.

Many Jews also immigrate from Vienna and the empire's Polish lands near the end of the century.

Hungary's population more than triples to eight million between 1720 and 1787.

However, only thirty-nine percent of its people are Magyars, who live mainly in the center of the country.

The Holy Roman Empire no longer has a significant role in European politics after the Thirty Years' War, but it remains important in Germany, providing a framework for the many German states' and cities' conduct of their public affairs.

The Reichstag, which remains in session at Regensburg from 1663 until the empire's dissolution in 1806, provides a forum for the settlement of disputes.

Votes are taken on occasion to remove incompetent or tyrannical rulers of member states.

The empire's most important service is that it provides a measure of security to Germany's many small states and free cities, without which some would be swallowed up by larger neighbors.

Its weakened condition renders it no longer able to dominate Germany, even when headed by ambitious and capable men such as Charles VI (r. 1711-40), who attempts unsuccessfully to breathe new life into the empire during the 1720s.

Later emperors return to the traditional Habsburg practice of using the imperial throne to benefit their own dynastic holdings.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1696–1707 CE): Dynastic Shifts and Cultural Innovations

The era 1696–1707 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is shaped by significant dynastic changes, intensified political struggles, and vibrant cultural developments that lay critical foundations for the eighteenth century.

Spain: The End of the Habsburg Dynasty and Succession Crisis

In Spain, the death of Charles II in 1700 marks the end of the Spanish Habsburg line. Severely affected by generations of intermarriage, Charles II's inability to produce an heir triggers a major succession crisis. Despite Habsburg claims, Charles II wills the throne to his grand-nephew, Philip of Anjou, a Bourbon and grandson of Louis XIV of France. Philip ascends as Philip V (1700–1746), igniting fears across Europe of a Franco-Spanish union. The resulting tensions erupt into the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714), the first significant European conflict of global scale.

An Anglo-Austrian coalition opposes Bourbon control, supporting Archduke Charles of Austria. Although Castile warmly accepts Philip, Catalonia resists Bourbon centralization, aligning with the Austrians to defend their traditional liberties (fueros). This internal division underscores deep-seated tensions between centralized monarchy and regional autonomy, significantly impacting Spain's internal political landscape.

Italy: Papal Reforms and Cultural Vibrancy

In Italy, the pontificate of Pope Innocent XII (Antonio Pignatelli, 1691–1700) emphasizes moral and administrative reform. Innocent XII vigorously combats nepotism with his landmark bull, Romanum decet Pontificem (1692), promoting meritocracy and austere governance. His successor, Pope Clement XI (Giovanni Francesco Albani, 1700–1721), assumes leadership during turbulent times, navigating between French and Austrian interests amid the Spanish succession turmoil.

This period also witnesses key cultural innovations. In Florence, the invention of the piano by Bartolomeo Cristofori around 1700 revolutionizes musical expression and performance. The vibrant cultural scene continues in cities like Venice and Rome, nurturing the arts, architecture, and opera, even as political uncertainties loom.

Malta: Strategic Consolidation and Medical Leadership

Malta continues its strategic consolidation under the Knights Hospitaller, significantly expanding and fortifying Valletta. Following the previous era's medical advancements, Malta solidifies its reputation in public health through continued improvements at the renowned Sacra Infermeria. These developments enhance Malta's resilience against health crises, reinforcing its strategic importance and cultural sophistication in the Mediterranean.

Broader Cultural and Intellectual Shifts

Throughout Mediterranean Southwest Europe, the influence of the early Enlightenment grows steadily. The ongoing influx of global commodities like coffee, introduced through Venetian commerce with the Ottoman Empire, continues to fuel vibrant intellectual exchanges in coffeehouses across the region. Moreover, theatrical traditions, notably the commedia dell'arte, remain influential, reflecting broader social themes and artistic creativity.

Legacy and Transformation

The era 1696–1707 CE thus represents a dynamic period of dynastic transition, cultural innovation, and intellectual ferment. Spain's succession crisis reshapes European diplomacy, while Italy and Malta experience cultural and strategic advancements. Collectively, these developments set the stage for pivotal transformations in the coming decades.