The Near East (909–898 BCE): New Foundations and Regional Stability

Rise of Dorian Cities

Around 900 BCE, Knidos (Cnidus) is established on the southern shore of the Gulf of Kos, in present-day southwestern Turkey. Founded by settlers likely from Lacedaemon (Sparta), Knidos swiftly becomes an influential Hellenic city. Alongside neighboring cities including Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum, Turkey), Kos, and the Rhodian cities of Lindos, Kameiros, and Ialysos, Knidos joins the Dorian Hexapolis, a confederation renowned for its communal assemblies held at the Triopian headland, where games honoring Apollo, Poseidon, and local nymphs are celebrated.

The city of Halicarnassus also emerges as a significant Dorian colony during this era. Traditions attribute its founding to settlers from the Greek cities of Troezen and Argos, a heritage reflected in symbolic iconography—such as Medusa, Athena, Poseidon, and the trident—on its coinage. The legendary founder, Anthes, is prominently recognized, with inhabitants proudly calling themselves the Antheadae.

Egyptian Stability and Temple Construction

In Egypt, the Third Intermediate Period continues, marked by a politically fragmented but relatively stable rule under the Twenty-second Dynasty, founded by the Libyan-descended Shoshenq I in 945 BCE. After Shoshenq’s death around 924–922 BCE, his son, Osorkon I, ascends the throne, initiating a prosperous and extensive reign noted for prolific temple-building projects. While the political capital remains at Tanis, rival regional dynasties persist in Upper Egypt, though none significantly challenge the dynasty’s central authority during Osorkon’s reign.

Religious Reform and Political Consolidation in Judah

Meanwhile, the Kingdom of Judah, under the reign of Asa (c. 913–873 BCE), enjoys a period of religious reform and political stability. Asa, praised by biblical tradition, vigorously promotes adherence to Judaism by eliminating pagan cults, removing idols, persecuting idol worshipers, and even deposing his own grandmother, Queen Mother Maacah, for her involvement in pagan practices. A crackdown on ritual prostitution and a large-scale religious celebration in Jerusalem enhance Asa’s popularity, attracting migrants from northern tribes, particularly Ephraim and Manasseh, who are drawn by Judah’s renewed stability and prosperity.

Israel’s Political Turmoil

In contrast, the Northern Kingdom of Israel experiences considerable internal upheaval. Jeroboam I (c. 931–910 BCE according to Edwin R. Thiele; 922–901 BCE according to William F. Albright), founder and first king of the northern tribes, had established Shechem as his capital and enacted significant religious reforms, notably erecting golden calf shrines at Dan and Bethel to consolidate religious and political control. However, upon his death, his son Nadab inherits a weakened kingdom.

Nadab’s brief two-year reign (c. 910–909 BCE) ends abruptly during a siege at Gibbethon, a contested town in southern Dan. Here, Baasha, a rival military leader, orchestrates a conspiracy, assassinates Nadab, and subsequently annihilates the house of Jeroboam, plunging Israel into further instability.

Summary of the Era

Between 909 and 898 BCE, the Near East witnesses a juxtaposition of emerging prosperity and persistent fragmentation. The establishment of prominent Dorian cities, religious consolidation under Asa in Judah, and sustained stability in Egypt contrast sharply with the political instability and dynastic upheaval characterizing Israel. These developments lay critical foundations for the regional power dynamics that will continue to evolve throughout the Iron Age.

The Near East (897–886 BCE): Religious Reform, Strategic Alliances, and Dynastic Transitions

Dynastic Stability and Intrigue in Egypt

The reign of Osorkon I, who presides peacefully and prosperously over Egypt’s Twenty-second Dynasty, concludes around 887 BCE. Although Osorkon’s tomb has never been discovered, his extensive temple-building activities underscore the stability and cultural revival he fostered. His likely successor, Takelot I, ascends to the throne amidst uncertainty caused by evidence of a possible intervening reign by Heqakheperre Shoshenq II. Shoshenq II, possibly Osorkon's son by senior wife Queen Maatkare B or even another son of Shoshenq I, briefly asserts independent rule from Tanis. His short tenure, lasting approximately two years, is marked by the grandeur of his tomb, richly furnished with jewelry, a distinctive falcon-headed silver coffin, and a golden death mask, reflecting genuine royal authority rather than mere co-regency.

Religious Reformation and Military Strategy in Judah

In the Kingdom of Judah, King Asa (circa 913–873 BCE) advances significant religious reforms. He continues purging pagan practices, notably banning male cult prostitution and dismantling worship of the Canaanite goddess Asherah, actions that lead to the removal of his own grandmother, Queen Mother Maacah, from power due to her adherence to these practices.

Following thirty-five years of relative tranquility, Asa bolsters Judah’s defensive infrastructure, reinforcing fortifications originally established by his grandfather, Rehoboam. This period of stability is disrupted by military threats, notably an invasion led by Zerah the Ethiopian—possibly identified as either Pharaoh Osorkon I or Osorkon II—backed by Egyptian forces. Asa successfully repels Zerah’s numerically superior forces in the Valley of Zephath near Mareshah, securing Judah from further Egyptian aggression for generations.

Late in Asa’s reign, the Northern Kingdom of Israel, under King Baasha, constructs the strategic fortress of Ramah, placing direct pressure on Judah's capital, Jerusalem. In response, Asa strategically aligns with King Ben-Hadad I of Aram Damascus, incentivizing him to break peace with Baasha and attack northern Israelite cities. This maneuver forces Baasha to abandon Ramah, allowing Asa to dismantle the fortress and repurpose its materials to strengthen Judah’s border fortresses at Geba and Mizpah.

Persistent Conflict and Instability in Israel

Meanwhile, the Northern Kingdom of Israel experiences ongoing instability under the reign of King Baasha (circa 909–886 BCE). Having ascended through assassination and political violence, Baasha rules for twenty-three years, characterized by continued warfare against Judah and internal unrest. Biblical historians later describe Baasha negatively, emphasizing his role in perpetuating religious and political instability within Israel.

Summary of the Era

From 897 to 886 BCE, the Near East is defined by profound religious reforms and strategic geopolitical maneuvers in Judah, a stable yet transitional dynastic period in Egypt, and persistent turmoil within Israel. These developments collectively illustrate the complexities of the period, foreshadowing further regional transformations.

Baasha (who like all of the northern kings, “did what was evil in the sight of the Lord,” according to the interpretation of the Deuteronomists) reigns for twenty-three years.

Over the course of his long reign, Baasha has been at war with Asa of Judah.

Asa, according to the Bible, inaugurates religious reforms, such as banning male cult prostitutes and the worship of the Canaanite goddess Asherah, consort of El, that had been sponsored by his mother, Maachah, the queen regent.

After a period of intermittent warfare between Judah and Israel, Judah enters into an alliance with the growing kingdom of Aram Damascus, by which the latter attacks northern Israel, thus relieving pressure on Judah.

Asa of Judah, taking advantage of thirty-five years of peace, has revamped and reinforced the fortresses originally built by his grandfather Rehoboam.

An invasion by the Egyptian-backed chieftain Zerah the Ethiopian (who, given the time frame with Asa's reign, may either be Pharaoh Osorkon II or Osorkon I) and his million men and three hundred chariots is defeated by Asa's five hundred and eighty thousand men (these figures come from 2 Chronicles) in the Valley of Zephath, near Mareshah (2 Chronicles 14:9-15).

The Bible does not state whether Zerah was a pharaoh or a general of the army.

The Ethiopians were pursued all the way to Gerar, in the coastal plain, where they stopped out of sheer exhaustion.

The resulting peace will keep Judah free from Egyptian incursions until the time of Josiah, some centuries later.

In Asa's 36th year, King Baasha of Israel attacks the Kingdom of Judah (2 Chronicles 16:1; the Seder Olam and some later commentators take this as the thirty-sixth year since the division of the kingdom, not the thirty-sixth year of Asa's reign).

Baasha builds the fortress of Ramah on the border, less than ten miles from Jerusalem.

The result is that the capital is under pressure and the military situation is precarious.

Asa takes gold and silver from the Temple and sends them to Ben-Hadad I, king of Aram Damascus, in exchange for the Damascene king canceling his peace treaty with Baasha.

Ben-Hadad I attacks Ijon, Dan, and many important cities of the tribe of Naphtali, and Baasha is forced to withdraw from Ramah.

Asa tears down the unfinished fortress and uses its raw materials to fortify Geba and Mizpah, on his side of the border (2 Chronicles 16:1-7).

The Near East (885–874 BCE): Dynastic Turmoil and Strategic Realignments

Dynastic Conflict and the Rise of Omri in Israel

In the Northern Kingdom of Israel, King Baasha maintains power throughout his life, yet his rule is marked by continued political opposition and prophetic denunciation. The prophet Jehu, son of Hanani, foretells the demise of Baasha’s dynasty—a prophecy swiftly realized upon Baasha's death. His son Elah reigns merely two years before being assassinated during a drunken episode by Zimri, a military commander. Zimri proceeds to eliminate all surviving members of Baasha's lineage, asserting his own claim to power.

However, Zimri's control is short-lived, enduring only seven days. Facing immediate opposition from Omri, commander of Israel's army, Zimri is besieged at the citadel of Tirzah. Realizing his situation is hopeless, Zimri sets fire to the palace, dying in the flames. Subsequently, Omri ascends to the throne, but only after four turbulent years of civil conflict with another claimant, Tibni. Finally consolidating his authority around 875 BCE, Omri relocates the kingdom’s capital permanently to the city of Samaria, fortifying Israel's political and strategic stability.

Religious Reform and Decline of Asa in Judah

In Judah, King Asa continues his efforts toward centralizing political authority and instituting significant religious reforms, focusing particularly on suppressing idolatrous practices. However, his reign becomes marked by controversy following an admonishment from Hanani the Seer, who criticizes Asa’s reliance on political alliances, specifically his dependence on Ben-Hadad I, King of Aram Damascus, instead of divine support, to counter Israelite aggression. Reacting angrily, Asa imprisons Hanani, signaling a deterioration in his previous adherence to justice and religious devotion.

In the latter part of his rule, Asa develops a debilitating disease in his feet, yet notably seeks remedies exclusively from physicians rather than spiritual assistance. During this period, he appoints his son Jehoshaphat as coregent, ensuring continuity amid declining health and waning influence.

Egyptian Dynastic Succession and Stability

Meanwhile, Egypt experiences relative stability under Takelot I, who peacefully succeeds his father, Osorkon I, as king of the Twenty-second Dynasty. His reign is generally uneventful, maintaining the prosperity initiated by his predecessors. Upon Takelot's death in 874 BCE, Osorkon II ascends to the throne, continuing the dynasty’s established stability.

Summary of the Era

Between 885 and 874 BCE, the Near East sees significant dynastic upheaval and consolidation in Israel under Omri, religious and political tension in Judah under Asa, and sustained dynastic continuity in Egypt. These events illustrate the complexities of leadership, political intrigue, and the enduring challenges of governance during this era.