The artist Thomas Cole is generally acknowledged as the founder of the Hudson River School, an art movement by a group of landscape painters that focuses on the beauty of natural scenes drawn from locations in Eastern North America and South America.

Cole's close friend, Asher Durand, becomes a prominent figure in the school as well.

An important part of the popularity of the Hudson River School is its celebration of its themes of nationalism, nature, and property.

However, adherents of the movement are also suspicious (or perhaps ambivalent) of the economic and technological development of the age.

Hudson River school paintings reflect three themes of America in the nineteenth century: discovery, exploration, and settlement.

The paintings also depict the American landscape as a pastoral setting, where human beings and nature coexist peacefully.

Hudson River School landscapes are characterized by their realistic, detailed, and sometimes idealized portrayal of nature, often juxtaposing peaceful agriculture and the remaining wilderness, which was fast disappearing from the Hudson Valley just as it is coming to be appreciated for its qualities of ruggedness and sublimity.

In general, Hudson River School artists believe that nature in the form of the American landscape is an ineffable manifestation of God, though the artists varied in the depth of their religious conviction.

They take as their inspiration such European masters as Claude Lorrain, John Constable and J. M. W. Turner.

Their reverence for America's natural beauty is shared with contemporary American writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson.

Several painters are members of the Düsseldorf school of painting, others have been educated by the German Paul Weber.

While the elements of the paintings are rendered realistically, many of the scenes are composed as a synthesis of multiple scenes or natural images observed by the artists.

In gathering the visual data for their paintings, the artists travel to extraordinary and extreme environments, which generally have conditions that will not permit extended painting at the site.

During these expeditions, the artists record sketches and memories, returning to their studios to paint the finished works later.

Thomas Cole had influenced his artistic peers, especially Asher B. Durand and Frederic Edwin Church, who had studied with Cole from 1844 to 1846.

Durand’s Kindred Spirits had been commissioned by the merchant-collector Jonathan Sturges as a gift for William Cullen Bryant in gratitude for the nature poet's moving eulogy to Thomas Cole, who had died suddenly in early 1848.

It shows Cole, who had been Jonathan Sturges’ mentor, standing in a gorge in Catskills in company of a mutual friend William Cullen Bryant. (The painting, donated by Bryant's daughter Julia to the New York Public Library in 1904, will be sold by the library through Sotheby's at an auction in May 2005 to Alice Walton for a purported $35 million. The sale will be conducted as a sealed, first bid auction, so the actual sales price is not known. At $35 million, however, it would be a record price paid for an American painting at the time.)

Northeastern North America

(1852 to 1863 CE): Epidemics, Industrial Expansion, Cultural Flourishing, and the American Civil War

From 1852 to 1863, Northeastern North America faced severe public health crises, rapid industrial expansion, significant cultural achievements, and intensifying national tensions culminating in the American Civil War. This era witnessed serious epidemics, urban growth, booming industrial activities, and the peak of artistic movements, all occurring amid escalating debates over slavery, states' rights, and national identity.

Epidemics and Public Health

Cholera and Typhus Epidemics

In 1854, a severe outbreak of cholera struck Chicago, resulting in about thirty-five hundred deaths, around five and a half percent of the city's population. Cholera also devastated New York, exacerbated by crowded conditions due to a major influx of Irish immigrants. Concurrently, a typhus epidemic originating in 1837 continued into the 1840s and 1850s, killing thousands of Irish immigrants in Canada, who had fled the Great Irish Famine aboard overcrowded ships.

Industrial and Economic Expansion

Bluestone Industry Flourishes

The bluestone industry reached new heights, with extensive usage for sidewalks, curbstones, building foundations, and architectural adornments in cities such as New York and Kingston. Shipped from significant distribution points like Rondout and Malden on barges and tugboats owned by entrepreneur Thomas Cornell, bluestone became a defining feature of urban infrastructure. Notably, Kingston’s sidewalks and curbstones were predominantly made from bluestone. Architectural landmarks such as Kingston's Old Dutch Church, designed by Minard Lefever and built between 1850 and 1852, and an Italian villa constructed in 1858 by leather tanning entrepreneur Henry Samson on West Chestnut Street, exemplified the widespread architectural use of this distinctive stone.

Ice Harvesting and Brick Manufacturing

Ice harvesting along the Hudson River expanded, providing year-round ice preserved in straw-insulated warehouses for critical refrigeration in communities like Rondout, Kingston, and Wilbur. Simultaneously, large-scale brick manufacturing factories near these shipping hubs further strengthened local economies.

Indigenous Trade and Relations

Arapaho Trade Networks

The Arapaho actively traded with farming villages of the Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa along the upper Missouri River, exchanging meat and hides for corn, squash, and beans. Known as the "Colored Stone Village People" by the Arikara, possibly due to gemstones from the Southwest among traded items, and as E-tah-leh or Ita-Iddi ("bison-path people") by the Hidatsa, the Arapaho played a critical role in regional indigenous economies and relations.

Artistic and Cultural Peak

Hudson River School

The Hudson River School of painting reached its artistic zenith during this period, profoundly influencing American culture and aesthetics. Led by artists such as John Frederick Kensett, George Inness, Asher B. Durand, Thomas Doughty, Jasper Cropsey, Sanford Robinson Gifford, and Frederick Edwin Church, the school was deeply inspired by Romanticism. Paintings from this period captured sublime landscapes of the Hudson River Valley, Catskill Mountains, Adirondack Mountains, and White Mountains of New Hampshire, emphasizing themes of exploration, settlement, and harmonious coexistence with nature.

Rising Tensions and the American Civil War

Political and Social Struggles

Tensions over slavery intensified, driven by abolitionist activism and political debates over states' rights. Radical abolitionists like William Lloyd Garrison, publisher of The Liberator, and former slave Frederick Douglass, who published the influential newspaper North Star, heightened public awareness and resistance against slavery. These debates significantly polarized American society.

Outbreak of the Civil War

By 1861, conflicts between Northern free states and Southern slave states erupted into the American Civil War, fundamentally altering the nation. The Northeast mobilized extensive resources, both industrial and human, contributing significantly to Union efforts. The war demanded major shifts in manufacturing, infrastructure, and transportation, laying foundations for future industrialization and urbanization.

Legacy of the Era (1852–1863 CE)

From 1852 to 1863, Northeastern North America navigated an era defined by industrial growth, severe public health crises, cultural expression, and the deep national trauma of the Civil War. These events profoundly shaped the region's economy, culture, and social structure, with legacies that would influence American identity for generations.

The influence of the Hudson River School is at its peak.

Led John Frederick Kensett, George Inness, Asher B. Durand, Thomas Doughty, Jasper Cropsey, Sanford Robinson Gifford, and Frederick Edwin Church, their aesthetic vision influenced by romanticism, the movement’s paintings depict the Hudson River Valley and the surrounding area, as well as the Catskill Mountains, Adirondack Mountains, and White Mountains of New Hampshire.

The second generation of Hudson River school artists had emerged to prominence after Cole's premature death in 1848; its members include Cole's prize pupil Frederic Edwin Church, John Frederick Kensett, and Sanford Robinson Gifford.

Works by artists of this second generation are often described as examples of Luminism.

In addition to pursuing their art, many of the artists, including Kensett, Gifford and Church, are among the founders of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.

Most of the finest works of the second generation are painted between 1855 and 1875.

During this time, artists such as Frederic Edwin Church and Albert Bierstadt are celebrities.

They are both influenced by the Düsseldorf school of painting, and Bierstadt had studied in that city for several years.

When Church exhibits paintings such as Niagara or The Icebergs, thousands of people pay twenty-five cents a head to view the solitary works.

The epic size of these landscapes, unexampled in earlier American painting, remind Americans of the vast, untamed, but magnificent wilderness areas in their country.

Such works are being painted during the period of settlement of the American West, preservation of national parks, and establishment of green city parks.