Near East (189–46 BCE): Roman Expansion, Jewish Struggles, and Cultural Flourishing

In 189 BCE, the Near East enters an era marked by the inception of the Greco-Roman world, with the Roman Republic increasingly dominating the eastern Mediterranean Basin. Having defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus III, Rome rewards its allies, particularly Pergamon and Rhodes, with territories, despite previously claiming a policy of "liberation of the Greeks." The Romans, under consul Gnaeus Manlius Vulso, subsequently launch an unauthorized campaign against the Galatian tribes of central Anatolia, decisively defeating them at Mount Olympus and near Ankara in 189 BCE. Although Vulso faces political backlash in Rome for acting without Senate approval, he is eventually cleared and granted a triumph.

Egyptian Instability and Seleucid Decline (177–154 BCE)

Between 177 and 166 BCE, Egypt under young Ptolemy VI Philometor experiences internal turmoil, with regents Eulaeus and Lenaeus provoking the Sixth Syrian War against Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The war briefly places Egypt under Seleucid influence until Roman envoy Gaius Popilius Laenas famously forces Antiochus to withdraw at Eleusis in 168 BCE. Meanwhile, Antiochus IV's aggressive Hellenization policies in Judea ignite the Maccabean Revolt in 165 BCE, led by the priestly Hasmonean family from Modiin. By 164 BCE, Jewish rebels successfully retake Jerusalem, cleanse the Temple, and reestablish traditional worship, initiating Hasmonean autonomy.

From 153 to 140 BCE, the region of modern Jordan thrives under the waning Seleucid and Ptolemaic influence, marked by the rise of the Nabataeans, who extend their kingdom from their capital at Petra, dominating regional trade. Greek influence continues to permeate the region, reflected in city names such as Philadelphia (Amman) and Gerasa (Jarash). Meanwhile, the pharaonic tradition persists among rulers at Meroë, who erect pyramids and stelae to record their achievements, utilizing a new Meroitic script.

Hasmonean Expansion and Hellenistic Influence (141–106 BCE)

By 141 BCE, the Hasmonean rulers secure substantial autonomy for Judea from the declining Seleucid Empire. Under rulers like John Hyrcanus (134–104 BCE), the Hasmoneans expand territorially, notably annexing Edom (Idumea), whose inhabitants adopt Judaism. Hellenistic cultural influence is evident, exemplified by iconic sculptures like the Venus de Milo, attributed to Alexandros of Antioch, created between 130 and 100 BCE.

In southern Arabia, the powerful Himyarite kingdom emerges around 115 BCE, capitalizing on the decline of the inland Sabaean kingdom. The Himyarites establish their center at Zafar, extending their influence from southern Yemen to the Persian Gulf region.

Roman Dominance, Cultural Exchange, and Jewish Population Growth (105–46 BCE)

From 105 BCE onward, Roman political involvement in the Near East intensifies. In 63 BCE, the Roman general Pompey decisively intervenes in Judean affairs, ending Jewish independence. Prominent Jewish figures like Antipater, father of Herod the Great, emerge as pivotal mediators between Judea and Rome. Pompey organizes the Decapolis, a league of ten self-governing Greek cities including Amman, Jarash, and Gadara (modern Umm Qays) to protect Greek interests from Jewish encroachment.

Between 69 and 58 BCE, the Jewish population grows significantly, both in Palestine and throughout the Diaspora. Estimates suggest millions of Jews and proselytes practicing Judaism across the Mediterranean world. Technological advancements, such as glassblowing, likely discovered in Phoenicia around 50 BCE, revolutionize glassware production and trade.

The Wisdom of Solomon, a Greek text by an Alexandrian Jew, emphasizes Jewish religious commitment and showcases extensive Hellenistic influence on Jewish literature, philosophy, and religious thought during this period.

Legacy of the Age

The age from 189 to 46 BCE profoundly reshapes the Near East through the consolidation of Roman dominance, the dynamic rise and territorial expansion of Hasmonean Judea, significant demographic growth among Jewish populations, and notable cultural and technological advancements. These developments lay foundations for further Roman imperial integration, foster dynamic cultural exchanges, and leave enduring legacies influencing subsequent regional histories.

Near East (69–58 BCE): Jewish Expansion and Roman Ascendancy

Between 69 and 58 BCE, Jewish influence notably expands, both within Palestine and throughout the Diaspora. Scholarly estimates suggest the Jewish population reaches substantial proportions during this era, ranging from around seven hundred thousand to possibly five million in Palestine, with an additional two to five million in the Diaspora. These numbers reflect not only natural population growth but also a significant increase in proselytes to Judaism, drawn by the ethical rigor and spiritual distinctiveness of Jewish practices.

Under Hasmonean rule, particularly since the conquests of John Hyrcanus (134–104 BCE), the region of Edom (Idumea) had been subdued, with its inhabitants compelled to adopt Judaism. The integration of Edomites into Judean society proves successful, and by the reign of Alexander Jannaeus, Edomite figures rise to prominent political positions. Antipater, son of Antipas, governor of Edom, emerges as a pivotal political figure and advisor to Hyrcanus II, forging influential ties with the expanding Roman Republic.

Rome's direct involvement in the region becomes decisive in 63 BCE, when Roman forces under Pompey the Greatintervene in Judean internal conflicts. This Roman intervention marks the effective end of Jewish independence, as Judea becomes subject to Roman oversight, a status from which it does not recover throughout Roman imperial rule.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 69 to 58 BCE signifies a turning point, marked by the considerable growth of the Jewish population and the critical introduction of Roman political dominance. The alliances and accommodations forged during this time decisively shape Judea's subsequent history, laying the foundation for its transformation into a significant, albeit contested, province within the expansive Roman world.

Judea under the Hasmonean Dynasty has become comparable in extent and power to the ancient Davidic dominion described in the Bible.

Internal political and religious discord runs high, however, especially between the Pharisees, who interpret the written law by adding a wealth of oral law, and the Sadducees, who call for strict adherence to the written law.

Salome Alexandra dies in 67 and her son assumes the rulership of Judaea as Hyrcanus II, but after a troubled reign of three months, his warlike brother Aristobulus drives him from power.

Hyrcanus seeks counsel from Antipater, satrap of the neighboring province of Idumaea (the former Kingdom of Edom, whose inhabits had been conquered and forcibly converted, among others, to Judaism by Hyrcanus' grandfather John Hyrcanus I).

Antipater, seeing in the weak-willed Hyrcanus a possible tool for his own desire to control Judaea, induces him to wage war on Aristobulus.

The two Hasmonean brothers, whose worldliness has alienated most of their subjects, have waged a brutal struggle in the kingdom of Judah, in 64 BCE finally appeal to Pompey to be their arbiter.

Pompey, who is reorganizing the lands of the newly conquered Seleucid kingdom, now has an excuse to intervene in Judea.

Pompey attempts unsuccessfully to arbitrate between the brothers.

The aristocracy at Rome, including Cicero, opposes the proposed annexation of Egypt.

Auletes, seeking to retain Roman support, sends troops to assist Pompey in southern Syria.

Pompey, seeing in Hyrcanus a means of controlling the temple-state, directs his Roman legions in laying siege to and capturing Jerusalem.

He imposes taxes on the Jews and curtails Jewish dominions, granting virtual autonomy to a group of ten or eleven Hellenized cities in Syria and Palestine, henceforth to be known as the Decapolis.

The Romans intend the league to be a means of mutual protection and security against the Greek cities’ Semitic neighbors.

He places the league under the jurisdiction of the newly appointed governor of Syria.

Pompey restores Hyrcanus to the high priesthood and some semblance of civil authority, but without the title of king adopted by his predecessors.

Thus, eighty years of independent Jewish sovereignty end, and a period of Roman dominion begins.

Mark Antony, a member of the Antonia clan (gens), is the homonymous and thus presumably the eldest son of Marcus Antonius Creticus (praetor 74 BCE, proconsul 73–71 BCE) and grandson of the noted orator Marcus Antonius (consul 99 BCE, censor 97–6 BCE) who had been murdered during the Marian Terror of the winter of 87–6 BCE.

Antony's father was incompetent and corrupt, and according to Cicero, he was only given power because he was incapable of using or abusing it effectively.

He had in 74 BCE been given imperium infinitum to defeat the pirates of the Mediterranean, but he died in Crete in 71 BCE without making any significant progress.

Creticus had two other sons: Gaius (praetor 44 BCE, born around 83 BCE) and Lucius (quaestor 50 BCE, consul 41 BCE, born around 81 BCE).

Antony's is cousin to Julius Caesar through his mother, Julia, a daughter of Lucius Caesar (consul 90 BCE, censor 89 BCE).

She had married Publius Cornelius Lentulus (consul 71 BCE), an eminent patrician, upon the death of her first husband.

Lentulus, despite exploiting his political success for financial gain, was constantly in debt due to the extravagance of his lifestyle.

He was a major figure in the second Catilinian conspiracy and was extrajudicially killed on the orders of Cicero in 63 BCE.

Antony had lived a dissipate lifestyle as a youth, and gained a reputation for heavy gambling.

According to Cicero, he had a homosexual relationship with Gaius Scribonius Curio.

There is little reliable information on his political activity as a young man, although it is known that he was an associate of Clodius.

He may also have been involved in the Lupercal cult, as he will be referred to as a priest of this order later in life.

Antony in 58 BCE had traveled to Athens to study rhetoric and philosophy, escaping his creditors.

The next year, he is summoned by Pompey's lieutenant Aulus Gabinius, proconsul of Syria, to take part in the campaigns against Aristobulus II in Judea, as the commander of a Gallic cavalry regiment.

On Gabinius’ arrival, he reinstates Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood at Jerusalem, suppresses revolts, introduces important changes in the government of Judaea, and rebuilds several towns.

Antony achieves important victories at Alexandrium and Machaerus.

Caesar has withstood the Siege of Alexandria between 48 and 47 BCE, a series of skirmishes and battles occurring between the forces of Julius Caesar, Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII.

Utilizing soldiers he had brought with him and a minor Italian militia left over from previous issues in 55 BCE, Caesar had managed a defense of the city until relief came in the form of Mithridates of Pergamon, who had raised an army and marched overland from Asia Minor to assist Caesar, and Antipater the Idumaean.

Caesar, pressed hard by the native forces under Arsinoe and Ganymedes, negotiates an exchange of Ptolemy for Arsinoe.

The King immediately takes command of the Egyptians, but Caesar, reinforced by the Pergamene army, outmaneuvers the Ptolemaic forces and the fifteen-year-old King of Egypt is killed in a final pitched battle fought at the west side of the Nile, probably by drowning as he attempts to flee.

The victorious Caesar victorious installs Cleopatra as ruler.

Caesar and Cleopatra celebrate their victory in the spring of 47 BCE with a triumphant procession on the Nile.

The royal barge is accompanied by four hundred additional ships, and Caesar is introduced to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs.

Having won his victory on March 27, 47, Caesar leaves Egypt after a fortnight's amorous, if uncharacteristic, respite.

Arsinoe is sent to Rome to be led in Caesar's triumph.

Caesar and Cleopatra will never marry, as Roman law recognized marriages only between two Roman citizens.

Caesar throughout his last marriage is to continue his relationship with Cleopatra, which will last fourteen years—this does not constitute adultery in Roman eyes—and may have fathered a son called Caesarion (“Little Caesar”).

Whether Caesar is in fact the father of Cleopatra's son cannot now be known.

Cleopatra will visit Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.

Caesar restores Hyrcanus to his office as a reward for the latter’s' support in 48 after Caesar’s defeat of Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus.

Antipater, who had aided Caesar in Alexandria, is made chief minister of Judea, with the right to collect taxes.