The Middle East: 1864–1875 CE

Consolidation and International Influence in Lebanon

Between 1864 and 1875, Lebanon experiences stability under the new administrative structure known as the Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon, established after the sectarian violence of 1860. Governed by a non-Lebanese Christian mutasarrif appointed by the Ottoman sultan with approval from European powers, Lebanon benefits from a relatively peaceful era. This governance, characterized by an administrative council representing Lebanon's diverse religious communities, provides a temporary cessation of internal strife. Many Lebanese emigrants continue to support their homeland economically through remittances from abroad, notably from Egypt, Africa, the Americas, and East Asia.

Lebanon also emerges as an intellectual hub during this period. Foreign missionaries establish educational institutions throughout the country, notably the American University of Beirut in 1866 and the French St. Joseph's University in 1875. A revitalized Arabic literary movement develops, supported by a prolific press and numerous publications.

Despite general calm, tensions simmer beneath the surface, exacerbated by ongoing European interference, particularly French backing of Christians and British interests in Druze regions, which continues to define Lebanon's political landscape.

Al Saud Authority and Regional Dynamics

Faisal ibn Turki Al Saud maintains firm control over central Arabia, continuing his strategic diplomacy with both Ottoman and British powers. Faisal’s rule sees the strengthening of Wahhabi principles, consolidating loyalty across Najd. Nonetheless, internal and external challenges persist, notably after Faisal's death in 1865, when power struggles among his sons Abd Allah, Abd ar Rahman, and Saud, along with Saud’s own sons, intermittently destabilize Riyadh. Faisal’s earlier establishment of alliances, such as the strategic marriage between his son Talal and Nura, daughter of the powerful Abd Allah ibn Rashid, helps manage these conflicts, preserving some stability and reinforcing the Al Saud dynasty's authority.

Qajar Iran under Foreign Pressure

Under Naser ad-Din Shah, Persia (Iran) continues facing significant pressure from British and Russian geopolitical ambitions, severely limiting Persian sovereignty. Russia solidifies its control over Iranian northern territories, compelling Iran to renounce claims on Central Asian regions through treaties like the Treaty of Paris in 1857. Britain actively safeguards its interests in Afghanistan and the Persian Gulf. Internally, Naser ad-Din Shah attempts modest modernization efforts, encouraged by reform-minded officials like Malkam Khan and prime minister Mirza Hosain Khan Moshir od Dowleh. These reforms, however, largely fail due to entrenched opposition from the bureaucracy, religious leadership, and ongoing external interference, resulting in persistent internal vulnerabilities.

Prosperity and British Influence in Oman

Said bin Sultan al-Busaidi sustains Oman's maritime prosperity and strategic significance, particularly through commerce in Zanzibar and other East African territories. Following Said’s death in 1856, his territories are divided between his sons, with Thuwaini bin Said ruling Muscat and Oman, and Majid bin Said becoming Sultan of Zanzibar. Despite this division, British influence ensures continuity in commerce and stability within Oman itself. British-imposed maritime truces also remain effective, reducing piracy and fostering safer trade conditions along the Trucial Coast.

Stability and Growth in the Persian Gulf

The Al Thani family consolidates its authority in Qatar, bolstered by Wahhabi ideological alignment, strengthening independence from Bahraini influence. Simultaneously, the Al Nahyan in Abu Dhabi solidify control, benefiting from alliances with both Britain and Oman. The Persian Gulf emirates continue to prosper under British maritime protections, with distinct political and economic identities developing due to the region's improved stability.

Ottoman Reforms and Societal Changes in Iraq

Ottoman rule in Iraq experiences significant modernization under governor Midhat Pasha starting in 1869. His Tanzimat reforms reorganize administration, secularize education, and introduce new legal codes, helping create a more centralized and efficient governance structure. The TAPU land laws inadvertently transform tribal sheikhs into wealthy landowners, altering traditional tribal dynamics and fostering the growth of an urban-based Iraqi intelligentsia. The introduction of steamboats, telegraph lines, and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 further integrates Iraq economically into global markets.

Russian Consolidation and Rising Nationalism in the Caucasus

Russia continues to consolidate its authority throughout the Caucasus, profoundly influencing Armenian and Georgian societies. Armenians benefit from educational and economic reforms, fostering heightened national awareness and cultural identity. Conversely, Georgian society faces intensified Russification, spurring resistance and nationalist movements among intellectuals and emerging urban classes. These divergent experiences underscore the complexities and tensions inherent in Russian rule.

Legacy of the Era

The years 1864 to 1875 witness transformative developments across the Middle East. Lebanon experiences stability under international oversight and intellectual renaissance; the Al Saud navigate complex internal dynamics; Persia struggles under persistent foreign pressure despite attempts at modernization; Oman maintains maritime prosperity through strategic divisions; Gulf emirates grow under British protection; Iraq undergoes significant Ottoman-led modernization; and Russian influence continues to shape nationalism in the Caucasus. These events collectively define the region's enduring cultural, economic, and political trajectories.

The Middle East: 1876–1887 CE

Ottoman Decline and International Competition

Between 1876 and 1887, the Ottoman Empire faces intensified internal strife and international pressure. The death of reformer Sultan Abdülaziz in 1876 is followed by short-lived reigns, ultimately bringing Abdul Hamid II to power. Abdul Hamid initially promises constitutional reform and establishes a parliament in 1876; however, he suspends it in 1878, inaugurating an era of increased centralization and autocratic governance. Internationally, the empire endures significant territorial losses following the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), finalized by the Treaty of Berlin (1878), diminishing its European territories and influence. The treaty cedes the territories of Ardahan, Batum, and Kars to Russia, while the sultan guarantees increased security for Christian subjects.

Reforms, Unrest, and Intellectual Growth in Lebanon

Lebanon continues to benefit from relative stability under the Mutasarrifate system. Nonetheless, religious and political tensions beneath the surface remain sensitive to external influences, particularly French and British interference. Educational and cultural institutions founded previously flourish significantly, highlighted by the founding of the American University of Beirut (1866) and St. Joseph’s University (1875), which become central to Lebanon's intellectual renaissance. An intellectual guild stimulates a revival of Arabic literature, fostering numerous publications and an active press. The harsh rule of Abdul Hamid II prompts increased clandestine political activity among both Christian and Muslim Arab nationalists in Beirut and Damascus. This period sees the crystallization of differing political visions: some Maronites advocate secession fearing pan-Islamic policies; Greek Orthodox Christians support an independent Syria with Lebanon as an autonomous province; Sunni Muslims generally prefer maintaining ties with the Ottoman caliphate; while Druze and Shia groups tend toward independence or status quo.

Internal Struggles in the Al Saud Domain

In Arabia, continued internal strife among the Al Saud family weakens central authority after the death of Faisal ibn Turki. Conflicts among Faisal’s sons—Abd Allah, Abd ar Rahman, and Saud—lead to intermittent control and further instability in Riyadh. These internal divisions challenge consistent authority, though alliances such as those with the influential Al Rashid family in Jabal Shammar remain crucial.

Qajar Iran: Concessions and Foreign Domination

Persia (Iran) under Naser ad-Din Shah further cedes sovereignty due to escalating pressure from British and Russian interests. Russian territorial gains in Central Asia solidify, and Britain extends its economic dominance. Increasingly unpopular economic concessions to foreigners provoke internal discontent. Reformist Persian officials like Malkam Khan and Prime Minister Mirza Hosain Khan Moshir od Dowleh advocate administrative, educational, and infrastructural reforms, emphasizing learning from advanced European states. However, resistance from bureaucratic and clerical factions hampers significant progress, laying foundations for later nationalist movements.

British Dominance and Maritime Prosperity in Oman

Under British oversight, Oman enjoys stability and maritime prosperity. The division between Muscat and Oman and Zanzibar functions effectively under British protection, facilitating regional commerce. Maritime truces significantly reduce piracy, ensuring the Persian Gulf remains a crucial and safe commercial route connecting Asia, Africa, and Europe.

Consolidation and Growth in the Persian Gulf

Qatar and Abu Dhabi solidify their respective positions under the rule of the Al Thani and Al Nahyan families, supported by continued British maritime protections. Qatar’s alignment with Wahhabi ideology distinguishes it from neighboring emirates. Economic prosperity from pearling and trade reinforces local autonomy, laying groundwork for future nation-building.

Modernization and Socioeconomic Shifts in Iraq

In Iraq, Ottoman reforms initiated by Midhat Pasha continue despite his removal. Infrastructure projects, including expanded telegraph networks, improved roads, and river transportation, integrate Iraq deeper into the global economy. The TAPU land laws foster an empowered class of wealthy sheikhs and landlords, significantly shifting tribal dynamics. Urban centers benefit from an influential educated class, which grows as secular education replaces traditional Islamic schooling. Increased Western presence, marked by the establishment of consulates and commercial advancements like steamboats and the Suez Canal, further integrates Iraq economically with Europe.

Rising National Consciousness in the Caucasus

Under Russian control, Armenia and Georgia experience intensified nationalist movements. Armenians develop robust national identity through educational and cultural revitalization, despite harsher Ottoman rule in Anatolian territories. Armenian appeals at the Congress of Berlin (1878) internationalize the "Armenian question," attracting attention from Russia and Britain. Georgian society faces intensified Russification, triggering nationalist resistance. The declining Georgian nobility leads to increased economic power for the Armenian merchant class, reshaping societal dynamics.

Legacy of the Era

From 1876 to 1887, the Middle East encounters profound transformations marked by Ottoman decline, Persian vulnerability, and increased British and Russian influence. Lebanon thrives culturally despite political tensions; the Al Saud face ongoing internal challenges; Oman and Persian Gulf emirates prosper under British oversight; Iraq modernizes economically and socially; and the Caucasus continues its path toward strengthened national identities. These shifts significantly influence the region’s subsequent political, cultural, and economic developments.