Mediterranean Southwest Europe (1000–1011 CE): Fitna of al-Andalus, Prelude to Collapse, and Cultural Traditions

The era 1000–1011 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is characterized by the outbreak of severe internal strife in Al-Andalus known as the Fitna, marking a critical prelude to the caliphate’s ultimate collapse, as well as the continuity and revival of deeply rooted cultural traditions such as bullfighting.

Fitna of al-Andalus and Political Fragmentation

The period sees the onset of the Fitna of al-Andalus (1009–1031 CE), a severe internal crisis marked by instability and civil war. Initiated by a violent coup d'état in 1009 CE, this conflict leads to the assassination of Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo, the son and successor of Al-Mansur, and the deposition of Caliph Hisham II al-Hakam. Muhammad II, the great-grandson of Abd-ar-Rahman III, ascends briefly to power amid growing chaos. This turbulent era significantly weakens the central authority of Córdoba, setting the stage for the eventual dissolution of the Caliphate into numerous small, independent kingdoms known as taifas.

Almanzor's Purges and Authoritarian Rule

The Fitna’s turmoil is amplified by earlier authoritarian measures taken by Almanzor (Al-Mansur), the de facto ruler until his death in 1002, who conducted extensive political and social purges throughout Muslim Al-Andalus. These harsh actions contributed significantly to the growing tensions and fragmentation that erupt dramatically in 1009.

Historical and Cultural Roots of Bullfighting

During this period, cultural practices rooted deeply in Mediterranean history, such as bullfighting, gain renewed prominence. Tracing its origins to ancient bull worship and sacrificial rites in Mesopotamia and the broader Mediterranean region, bullfighting evolved from practices depicted in Minoan Crete’s bull-leaping traditions and Roman Venationes—animal hunts held for entertainment. Evidence of early bullfighting appears in Iberian artifacts such as the Celtiberian tombstone from Clunia and the cave painting known as El toro de hachos.

Moorish Influence on Bullfighting Tradition

Notably, the Moors of Al-Andalus restore and popularize bullfighting practices involving skilled riders confronting bulls on horseback. This revival of mounted bullfighting—previously suppressed by Christian authorities—exemplifies cultural continuity and exchange within the Iberian Peninsula, highlighting the enduring Moorish influence on Iberian traditions.

Persistent Intellectual and Cultural Vitality

Despite the ongoing political turmoil, intellectual life, especially within Jewish and Mozarab communities, continues to thrive. Lucena maintains its prominence as a center of Jewish scholarship, while Mozarab communities continue to bridge Christian and Muslim cultures, preserving and fostering intellectual and cultural resilience.

Economic Stability and Technological Continuation

Technological innovations, particularly the sustained use of the Catalan forge, underpin continued economic stability and growth. Enhanced iron production continues supporting agricultural productivity, urban development, and military capabilities across the region.

Legacy of the Era

The era 1000–1011 CE marks a critical juncture in Al-Andalus, defined by the Fitna’s onset and the imminent collapse of centralized caliphal power. Simultaneously, the revival and continuation of ancient cultural traditions such as bullfighting illustrate the region’s enduring cultural complexity and resilience, significantly influencing the historical trajectory of Mediterranean Southwest Europe.

The Fitna of al-Andalus, a period of instability and civil war, precedes the ultimate collapse of the Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031.

In addition to the political turmoil, large purges are also carried out throughout Muslim al-Andalus by Almanzor, its de facto ruler.

It begins in the year 1009 with a coup d'état that leads to the assassination of Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo, the son of Almanzor, the deposition of the Caliph Hisham II al-Hakam, and the rise to power of Muhammad II of Córdoba, great-grandson of Abd-ar-Rahman III.

The conflict will eventually divide all of Al-Andalus into a series of small kingdoms, or statelets; called taifas.

Abd al-Malik Al-Muzaffar had come to power after his father Al-Mansur's death in 1002, and secured his position in the Caliphate with successful campaigns against Navarre and Barcelona before being poisoned, allegedly, by his younger brother Abd al-Rahman, commonly known as Sanchuelo, whose mother is Abda (born Urraca), daughter of King Sancho II Garcés of Pamplona.

Sanchuelo seizes the dictatorship, coercing the weak caliph, Hisham II, to name him as heir; this precipitates a rebellion at Córdoba, the seat of Moorish Spain’s government, whose citizenry already disliked the rule of Almanzor because he had recruited for his safety many Berbers as mercenaries.

When Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo goes on an expedition against King Alfonso V of León in February 1009, a popular uprising in 1009 led by Muhammad II al-Mahdi, a member of the Umayyad dynasty, deposes both Sanchuelo and Hisham II, the latter being kept imprisoned in Cordoba under the new regime.

Muhammad destroys the residence of Sanchuelo, called al-Madina al-Zahira ("the flourishing city").

On receiving this news, Sanchuelo returns to Córdoba but his troops abandon him.

He is arrested by the order of al-Mahdi and assassinated on March 3.

The next few years in al-Andalus will see rapid changes of leadership as a result of wars between Berber and Arab armies, as well as of Slavic mercenaries (or enslaved Slavs; sources differ).

Sanchuelo is assassinated in 1009, and in November, the Berbers, aided by Sancho Garces of Castile, overthrow the usurper Muhammad II.

The combined Christian-Muslim forces then plunder Cordoba and install Süleyman as caliph.

With central authority in al-Andalus thus weakened, the caliphate breaks up into small quarreling taifas, or factional states, each with an independent emir or king.