The Visigothic Conquest of Provence and the Siege of Clermont (c. 470 CE)

As the Western Roman Empire collapses, the Visigothic Kingdom, under King Euric, takes advantage of Rome’s growing weakness to expand its dominion deeper into Gaul. Around 470 CE, Euric launches a major campaign into Provence, seizing vast territories that had remained under nominal Roman control.

The Visigothic Invasion of Provence

• Euric's forces overrun much of Provence, securing key cities such as Arles and Marseille, vital for Mediterranean trade and defense.
• By doing so, the Visigoths strengthen their hold on southern Gaul, cutting off one of the last remaining Roman strongholds in the region.
• This conquest further isolates Syagrius’ Domain of Soissons in northern Gaul, leaving it as the only significant Roman enclave left.

The Siege of Clermont-Ferrand in Auvergne

• Euric then turns his attention to Clermont-Ferrand, a strategic city in Auvergne that still holds out under Roman rule.
• The city is besieged, likely facing intense pressure from Visigothic forces intent on securing all of central Gaul.
• Sidonius Apollinaris, the bishop of Clermont and a prominent Gallo-Roman aristocrat, plays a key role in organizing resistance against the Visigoths. His letters and accounts provide firsthand testimony of the deteriorating situation.

The Decline of Roman Gaul

The fall of Provence and the siege of Clermont mark a critical turning point in the collapse of Roman authority in Gaul:

• The Visigoths emerge as the dominant power in southern Gaul, effectively supplanting Roman rule in the region.
• The last remaining Roman forces in Gaul are confined to Soissons, under Syagrius, and parts of the Rhône Valley, which will soon fall.
• The Franks, still consolidating power in the north, watch as the Visigoths expand uncontested, setting the stage for future conflicts between these two rising barbarian kingdoms.

Though Clermont resists for some time, it eventually falls to the Visigoths, solidifying their control over Auvergneand bringing an end to yet another Roman outpost in Gaul.

The Council of Clermont (535 CE): Strengthening Ecclesiastical Discipline in the Frankish Kingdom

In 535 CE, under the presidency of Honoratus, Bishop of Bourges, fifteen prelates from the Frankish Kingdom of Reims gather at Clermont-Ferrand for a synod known as the Council of Clermont. This council, like earlier Frankish church councils, aims to establish discipline, regulate clerical conduct, and reinforce Christian authority in society.

1. Canons and Their Influence on Canon Law

• The council drafts seventeen canons, sixteen of which are later included in the Decretum Gratiani, a 12th-century compilation of canon law by Gratian, a jurist from Bologna.
• These canons become part of the Corpus Iuris Canonici, the foundational body of medieval Catholic Church law.

Key Canons Passed at the Council

1. Ecclesiastical Discipline Over Temporal Matters

   • Bishops are prohibited from addressing personal or secular disputes in councils before discussing matters of church discipline.

2. Clerical Authority and Secular Appeals

   • Clerics are forbidden from appealing to secular authorities in disputes against their bishops.
   • This ensures that ecclesiastical matters remain within the Church’s jurisdiction, preventing interference from lay rulers.

3. Condemnation of Corrupt Episcopal Appointments

   • Excommunication is declared against bishops who:
     • Seek secular intervention (especially from Frankish princes) to obtain bishoprics.
     • Forge election decrees to manipulate their way into office.

2. Anti-Jewish Legislation

Following the precedents set by earlier Frankish councils, the Council of Clermont enacts strict laws aimed at limiting Jewish influence:

• Jewish judges are banned, preventing them from ruling over Christian subjects.
• Jews are prohibited from holding administrative positions, removing them from state and local government offices.
• The council strongly condemns and prohibits interfaith marriages between Christians and Jews, further isolating Jewish communities from Christian society.

These measures reflect the increasing integration of Church and state, as the Frankish monarchy aligns itself closely with Catholic bishops.

3. Clerical Reform and Social Regulation

• The council reinforces prohibitions on marriages between relatives, strengthening previous Church efforts to control familial alliances.
• Clerical misconduct is condemned, emphasizing the need for moral discipline among priests and bishops.

4. The Impact on Frankish Society

• The council expands the power of the Catholic Church in the Frankish Kingdom, reinforcing the hierarchical authority of bishops.
• By aligning canon law with Frankish royal policies, the Church strengthens its control over religious and legal matters.
• The anti-Jewish decrees reflect increasing religious intolerance, which will persist and intensify in medieval Europe.

Conclusion: The Council of Clermont as a Turning Point

The Council of Clermont (535 CE) marks another step in the Merovingian Church’s consolidation of power, reinforcing Christian authority, defining episcopal hierarchy, and shaping canon law. The Frankish Church and monarchy continue to work in tandem, setting the stage for the deep integration of Church and state that will define the medieval European world.

The Sixth-Century Plague and Celestial Omens in the Frankish Kingdom

The sixth-century pandemic, known as the Plague of Justinian (541–542 CE), is estimated to have killed around 100 million people across Asia, Europe, and the Middle East throughout its multiple waves. This devastating outbreak of bubonic plague weakens civilizations from the Byzantine Empire to the Frankish Kingdom, leading to economic collapse, population decline, and political instability.

1. The Plague of Justinian: A Global Catastrophe

• Caused by Yersinia pestis, the pandemic originates in Central Asia and spreads via trade routes, particularly through Egypt and Constantinople before reaching Western Europe.
• The plague devastates urban centers, leading to mass death and famine as agricultural systems collapse.
• Emperor Justinian I, ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire, contracts the disease but survives; however, the empire never fully recovers from the population and economic decline.

2. The Plague Reaches the Frankish Kingdom

• By the mid-sixth century, the plague spreads to Gaul (modern France), including the region of Auvergne.

• Gregory of Tours, the leading Frankish historian and bishop, records the catastrophe in his Historia Francorum (History of the Franks).

• According to his account, just before the plague swept through Auvergne, a strange celestial phenomenonoccurred:

  "Three brilliant lights appeared around the sun, and the heavens appeared to be on fire."

• Such celestial signs were often interpreted as omens of divine wrath or impending disaster, reinforcing contemporary fears of an apocalyptic event.

3. The Impact on the Frankish Kingdom

• The plague ravages Merovingian Gaul, causing widespread mortality and social disruption.
• Cities and rural areas suffer severe depopulation, weakening Frankish political structures.
• The high mortality among clergy and aristocracy leads to power struggles and dynastic instability.
• The outbreak exacerbates food shortages and economic turmoil, making it more difficult for Merovingian rulers to maintain stability.

4. The Plague and the Medieval World

• The Justinianic Plague is one of the earliest recorded pandemics, prefiguring later outbreaks like the Black Death (1347–1351 CE).
• The pandemic contributes to the long-term weakening of urban centers, further shifting medieval European society toward feudalism and localized economies.
• Religious and apocalyptic interpretations of the plague reinforce the power of the Catholic Church, as people seek divine protection and explanations.

Conclusion: A Pandemic That Shaped History

The sixth-century plague, which killed an estimated 100 million people, left a lasting impact on the Frankish world and the broader medieval period. The ominous celestial signs described by Gregory of Tours underscore how medieval societies viewed natural disasters as divine portents, influencing religious thought, political decisions, and societal transformations in the centuries to come.

Jewish Life and Forced Conversions in Sixth-Century Frankish Gaul

Throughout the sixth century, the Jewish communities of Frankish Gaul experience a period of relative tolerance and prosperity, particularly under the Merovingian rulers of Austrasia. Jews hold positions of influence, engaging in commerce, medicine, law, and even military service. They interact freely with Christians, and intermarriages are not uncommon.

However, by the later sixth century, increasing ecclesiastical power and shifting political dynamics lead to episodes of persecution and forced conversion, culminating in the Clermont riots of 576 CE.

1. Early Tolerance and Favorable Relations with Frankish Rulers

• Jews are active in trade and finance, particularly as shipowners and merchants on the rivers and seas of Gaul.
• Many Jewish physicians and judges are respected in Frankish society, holding prominent positions.
• Frankish rulers of Austrasia, particularly Theuderic I, Theudebert I, and Theudebald, pursue pro-Jewish policies.
  • Theudebert and Theudebald allow Bishop Gallus of Clermont, who was favored by the Jewish community, to remain in his position.
  • When Gallus dies in 551 CE, Jews openly mourn his passing and support Cautinus, a candidate for bishop.
  • In Uzés, Theudebald appoints Bishop Ferreolus, another known supporter of Jewish rights.

2. The Rise of Anti-Jewish Sentiment and Forced Conversions

• The death of Theudebald in 555 CE marks a turning point. His kingdom is divided between Chlothar I and Childebert I, weakening Jewish protections.
• Childebert exiles Ferreolus, the pro-Jewish Bishop of Uzés, and Jewish influence in the court begins to wane.
• Chramm, Chlothar’s rebellious son, seizes Clermont in alliance with Childebert but is opposed by Bishop Cautinus, leading to further instability.

3. The Clermont Riots and Mass Conversions (576 CE)

• Upon Cautinus' death in 572, a struggle for the bishopric of Clermont ensues.
• The Jewish community supports Euphrasius, but King Sigebert I of Austrasia appoints Avitus of Auvergne.
• Avitus is zealous in converting Jews, using force or coercion.

The Easter Incident (April 5, 576 CE)

• On Easter Day, a Jew converts to Christianity and joins a religious procession.
• A Jewish bystander sprinkles rancid oil on the new convert, provoking an angry mob of Christians.
• The mob attempts to stone the offender, but Bishop Avitus intervenes, preventing immediate violence.

The Destruction of the Synagogue and Forced Baptisms (May 14–18, 576 CE)

• On Ascension Day (May 14, 576 CE), a Christian mob destroys the synagogue in Clermont.
• The following day, Avitus gives the Jewish community an ultimatum:
  • Convert to Christianity or
  • Face expulsion from the city.
• According to Gregory of Tours, the Jewish community hesitates for three days, during which:
  • Many Jews are attacked in their homes.
  • Some are killed in mob violence.
• On May 18, 576 CE, over 500 Jews accept baptism to avoid expulsion or death.
• The remaining Jews flee the city, migrating to regions where they might find greater tolerance.

4. The Role of Pope Gregory I and Later Policies

• While forced conversions become more frequent, Pope Gregory I (r. 590–604 CE) later exhorts Frankish clergy and rulers against using force in converting Jews.
• However, this does not halt the increasing pressure on Jewish communities throughout Merovingian Gaul, as the Church gains greater political power.

5. Conclusion: A Transition from Tolerance to Persecution

• The sixth century begins with relative tolerance, as Jewish merchants, scholars, and officials integrate into Frankish society.
• However, by the 570s, rising ecclesiastical power and royal instability lead to violent anti-Jewish riots and forced conversions.
• The Clermont incident of 576 CE is a turning point, illustrating the growing religious intolerance that will later intensify in medieval France and beyond.

These events foreshadow the increasing marginalization of Jews in Christian Europe, culminating in later medieval expulsions and restrictions across the continent.

...the Auvergne, two key border regions between Frankish-controlled Francia and Aquitanian-held lands.

This marks the beginning of a prolonged war, as Pepin seeks to bring Aquitaine fully under Carolingian rule, erasing its remaining autonomy and establishing direct Frankish control over the region.

The 761 Aquitanian Campaign: Frankish Victory in the Auvergne

In 761, as Pepin the Short advances into Aquitaine, Duke Waifer seeks to counter the Frankish offensive by ordering his border counts to mount a counterattack against Frankish-held Burgundy. He commands Count Chunibert of Bourges and Count Blandinus of the Auvergne to assemble their forces for an assault on Chalon-sur-Saône, a strategic stronghold on the northeastern frontier of Aquitaine.

Composition of the Aquitanian Army

The army assembled for this campaign likely consists primarily of local levies, as Gascon (Basque) warriors—a key professional core of Waifer's forces—are not mentioned in this engagement. The continuator of the Chronicle of Fredegar, who is otherwise careful to document Gascon participation, omits them here, suggesting that this force lacks the experienced Vascones mercenaries who typically form Waifer’s elite troops.

The Frankish Counteroffensive and the Fall of the Auvergne

Though the Aquitanian forces ravage parts of Burgundy, Pepin’s response is swift. He pushes the invaders backand goes on the offensive, capturing key fortresses in Auvergne, including:

• Bourbon
• Chantelle
• Clermont

Count Blandinus is forced to surrender, signaling a major setback for Waifer's resistance. The garrison at Bourbon is specifically identified by the continuator of Fredegar as the “men of Waifer” (homines Waiofarii), reinforcing that these fortresses were essential to Aquitanian defense.

The Treaty and Frankish Control in the Auvergne

By the end of the campaign, Pepin secures permanent control over many fortresses in the Auvergne through a treaty, marking a turning point in the war. With the loss of these strategic strongholds, Aquitaine’s defenses are significantly weakened, bringing Waifer one step closer to defeat and Frankish rule one step closer to full consolidation.

The Integration of Auvergne into the Appanage of John, Duke of Berry (1360)

In 1360, King John II of France granted Auvergne as an appanage to his third son, John of Berry, consolidating his territorial holdings in central France. This marked the latest phase in Auvergne’s shifting political status, as it had previously been incorporated into various appanages within the French royal family.

Historical Background: Auvergne Under the Capetians

• Originally an independent county, Auvergne had been absorbed into the royal domain and assigned to various appanages—lands granted to cadet branches of the royal family.
• In the 13th century, Auvergne became part of the appanage of Alphonse of Poitiers (Count of Poitou and Count of Toulouse, 1241–1271), a brother of King Louis IX (Saint Louis).
• Upon Alphonse’s death without heirs (1271), Auvergne returned to the French Crown and was later reassigned.

John of Berry’s Appanage (1360)

• Following the Treaty of Brétigny-Calais (1360) and his release from English captivity, King John II granted John of Berry a large appanage in central France, which included:
  • The Duchy of Berry
  • The Duchy of Auvergne
  • The County of Poitiers
  • The County of Montpensier
• This move solidified John’s power in the region, making him one of the wealthiest and most influential princes in France.

Significance and Impact

• The integration of Auvergne into John’s appanage strengthened his political and economic base, reinforcing his status as a key figure in French politics.
• John of Berry became known for his administrative reforms, patronage of the arts, and role in the Valois court.
• The duchy remained part of his family’s holdings until it was eventually reintegrated into the French Crown in later centuries.

By 1360, Auvergne had become a central part of the vast territories granted to John, Duke of Berry, ensuring his prominence within the French nobility and the political structure of the Valois monarchy.

The 1371 French Offensive Against English Guyenne

By 1371, King Charles V of France sought to continue his campaign to drive the English from their remaining possessions in Guyenne (Aquitaine). To achieve this, he entrusted military leadership to his most capable commanders, Constable Bertrand du Guesclin and Olivier de Clisson, both of whom had already proven their effectiveness in reversing English gains in France.

French Strategy and Division of Command

• Charles V ordered a two-pronged attack, assigning:
  • Bertrand du Guesclin to lead the offensive in Auvergne, focusing on reclaiming English-held fortresses and strategic towns in central France.
  • Olivier de Clisson to attack English positions in Poitou, Saintonge, and Anjou during the summer of 1371, disrupting English-controlled trade routes and fortifications.