Bayonne: Expanding English Influence on the Atlantic

• Bayonne, a key port city in Gascony, also came under English rule in 1154 as part of Eleanor of Aquitaine’s inheritance.
• Its coastal location on the Adour River made it an essential trading hub, facilitating English access to Basque fisheries, wine exports, and commerce with Iberia.
• Bayonne’s inclusion in the Angevin realm secured greater English naval influence in the Bay of Biscay and strengthened connections with Aquitaine.

Impact of These Acquisitions

• The Angevin Empire was now a dominant force in Western Europe, stretching from Scotland to the Pyrenees.
• The Capetian monarchy in France found itself increasingly encircled by English-controlled territories, setting the stage for centuries of conflict between the two crowns.
• The control of Touraine and Bayonne reinforced Henry II’s authority over key trade routes, military strongholds, and economic centers, further consolidating his power on the Continent.

Though gained through inheritance rather than conquest, these territories greatly expanded English influence in France, deepening the Anglo-French rivalry that would last for centuries.

...Bayonne, and...

John of Gaunt Renounces His Claim to Castile and the Truce Between Castile and Portugal (1387–1388)

In 1388, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, formally relinquished his claim to the Castilian throne by concluding peace at Bayonne, in exchange for a substantial financial settlement. This agreement effectively ended English ambitions in Castile, following years of unsuccessful military campaigns and political maneuvering.

At the same time, the informal truce between Castile and Portugal (first established in 1387) was extended, pending an official peace treaty between the two kingdoms.

John of Gaunt’s Claim to Castile and the Road to Peace

• John of Gaunt had married Constance of Castile, daughter of the deposed King Peter I ("the Cruel"), in 1371, asserting a claim to the Castilian throne.
• His involvement in the Castilian Civil War and alliance with Portugal led to a military expedition to the Iberian Peninsula in 1386, which ended without success.
• By 1388, Gaunt recognized the futility of his claim and agreed to a diplomatic settlement with King John I of Castile, relinquishing his rights in return for a large financial compensation.

Truce Between Castile and Portugal (1387–1388)

• The ongoing tensions between Castile and Portugal, exacerbated by English interference, led to an informal truce in 1387.
• With Gaunt’s exit from Castilian politics in 1388, the truce was extended, setting the groundwork for an eventual formal peace agreement.

Impact and Legacy

• John of Gaunt’s withdrawal from Castile marked the end of English intervention in Iberian politics, allowing him to refocus on affairs in England and France.
• The truce between Castile and Portugal contributed to stabilizing the Iberian Peninsula, reducing Anglo-Castilian hostilities.
• This diplomatic shift allowed Castile and Portugal to define their relations more independently, without English or French interference.

The 1388 Peace of Bayonne ended John of Gaunt’s ambitions in Castile, while the truce extension between Castile and Portugal signaled a temporary respite in Iberian conflicts, shaping the future political landscape of the region.

John of Gaunt’s Withdrawal from Castile and the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance (1388)

After his unsuccessful invasion of Castile, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, formally abandoned his claim to the Castilian throne in 1388, concluding peace at Bayonne in exchange for a substantial financial settlement from King John I of Castile. At the same time, his dynastic ambitions shifted to Portugal, as his daughter, Philippa of Lancaster, married King John I of Portugal, solidifying an Anglo-Portuguese alliance.

Additionally, the informal truce between Castile and Portugal (established in 1387) was extended, allowing time for an official peace treaty to be arranged between the Iberian kingdoms.

Key Developments Leading to the 1388 Peace Agreement

1. John of Gaunt’s Invasion of Castile (1386–1387) and Failure

   • Gaunt had asserted a claim to the Castilian throne through his marriage to Constance of Castile, daughter of the deposed King Peter I ("the Cruel").
   • His military campaign in Castile (1386–1387), launched in alliance with Portugal, failed to gain significant ground.
   • Facing logistical difficulties, lack of local support, and superior Castilian resistance, he withdrew from the campaign.

2. Marriage of Philippa of Lancaster and John I of Portugal (1387)

   • Seeking to secure a lasting alliance with Portugal, Gaunt arranged for his daughter Philippa of Lancaster to marry King John I of Portugal.
   • This marriage strengthened Anglo-Portuguese ties and helped Portugal resist Castilian influence.

3. The Peace of Bayonne (1388): Gaunt Renounces Castile

   • Gaunt formally relinquished his claim to Castile, recognizing John I of Castile as the legitimate ruler.
   • In exchange, he received a large financial settlement, bringing an end to his unsuccessful Iberian ambitions.

4. The Extension of the Truce Between Castile and Portugal (1387–1388)

   • With Gaunt out of the picture, Castile and Portugal extended their truce, preparing for a lasting peace agreement.

Impact and Legacy

• John of Gaunt’s withdrawal from Castile ended English intervention in Castilian affairs, redirecting Gaunt’s focus to England and France.
• The marriage between Philippa of Lancaster and John I of Portugal established the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, which would endure for centuries.
• The truce between Castile and Portugal paved the way for a formal peace treaty, reducing conflicts in the Iberian Peninsula.

The 1388 Peace of Bayonne marked the definitive end of John of Gaunt’s claim to Castile, while the Anglo-Portuguese marriage created a diplomatic bond that would influence European politics for generations.

...the fall of Bayonne and surrounding Gascon strongholds.

This rapid collapse of English control in Gascony was facilitated by the French army's improved organization and tactics, particularly its sophisticated use of artillery under commanders like the brothers Jean and Gaspard Bureau. Moreover, English governance had been increasingly tenuous, weakened by internal divisions, ineffective leadership, and insufficient reinforcements from England itself.

The fall of Bordeaux, Bayonne, and other Gascon cities marked the virtual end of nearly three centuries of English rule in southwestern France, critically reducing England’s continental presence to the single fortified city of Calais in the north. Politically and symbolically, these victories represented the near completion of Charles VII’s restoration of French royal authority across its traditional territories, reshaping the geopolitical landscape of Atlantic West Europe as the Hundred Years' War entered its final stage.

...Bayonne (May 9). These treaties, crucially strategic for both rulers, obligated Louis XI to provide John with seven hundred lances, equivalent to roughly 4,200 mounted knights and their attendants. In exchange, John agreed to pay tribute, aligning Navarre more closely with French interests and significantly shifting the political balance within the region.

Political and Military Context

These treaties came at a delicate moment for King John of Navarre, whose internal dynastic struggles had left his position unstable. Earlier, in April 1461, at Olite, Louis XI had already endorsed John's controversial decision to disinherit his eldest daughter, Blanche II of Navarre, in favor of his younger daughter, Eleanor, and her husband, Gaston IV, Count of Foix. Blanche, initially handed over to Eleanor and Gaston's custody, was later imprisoned and ultimately poisoned in 1464, further highlighting the ruthless political dynamics of the period.

The agreements at Sauveterre and Bayonne solidified Louis XI’s support for John’s dynastic rearrangements, revealing Louis’s pragmatic willingness to intervene in Navarre’s internal affairs in return for political influence.

Economic and Territorial Implications

As part of these treaties, Louis XI reinforced French influence over Navarre, which provided a critical buffer zone along France's southern border. By committing French military resources to John, Louis ensured greater security against potential incursions from Castile and Aragón, while simultaneously solidifying French political and economic influence in the Pyrenean region.

Dynastic and Cultural Consequences

The agreement notably reshaped Navarre’s dynastic landscape, affirming Eleanor and Gaston of Foix’s future inheritance at the expense of Blanche. The tragic outcome of Blanche’s imprisonment and murder revealed the brutal realities underpinning dynastic politics during this period. These actions not only had immediate political repercussions but set a troubling precedent for ruthless dynastic conflict in Navarre and the broader region.

Long-Term Significance

The treaties signed at Sauveterre and Bayonne significantly deepened Navarre's political ties to France, ultimately shaping the kingdom's future trajectory. By securing the line of succession through Eleanor and Gaston, the agreements reshaped the dynastic landscape, fostering complex, lasting tensions between Navarre, Foix, and France. Moreover, Blanche's tragic fate underscored the brutal methods employed by rival claimants to solidify power, exemplifying the often volatile intersection of dynastic politics and interstate diplomacy in late medieval Atlantic West Europe.

Arrival of Iberian Jews in Northwestern Europe: The Sephardic Diaspora in France (1492–1498)

Following the completion of the Reconquista in 1492, the Catholic monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, decreed the expulsion or forced conversion of all Jews in their territories. This event dramatically reshaped the demographic, religious, and cultural landscape of Atlantic West Europe, particularly affecting northwestern Europe through subsequent Jewish migration and settlement.

Iberian Expulsion and Jewish Diaspora

Expelled Iberian Jews, collectively known as the Sephardim, sought refuge in neighboring regions. Approximately 150,000 to 200,000 Jews were forced to leave Spain, scattering throughout the Mediterranean, North Africa, and Northern Europe. Around 1497–1498, following further expulsions and persecutions in Portugal, many Sephardic Jews turned northward, establishing communities in northwestern European urban centers such as Bayonne, ...

English Expedition to Bayonne and Navarre (June–October 1512)

In June 1512, in fulfillment of commitments made under the broader context of the League of the Holy League, a substantial English force arrived in the Basque region, landing at Hondarribia (Fuenterrabía) near Bayonne, with the goal of opening a new front against France. Commanded by Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset, and conveyed by Admiral Edward Howard, this expeditionary force was intended to strike at southern France and support the territorial ambitions of England’s ally, Ferdinand II of Aragon.

However, rather than proceeding swiftly into French territory, Dorset's troops remained encamped at Bayonnethroughout the summer of 1512, awaiting further coordination from their Spanish allies. Ferdinand of Aragon strategically diverted their efforts toward the conquest of the independent Kingdom of Navarre, leveraging English forces to consolidate his own territorial ambitions rather than directly challenging France in Guyenne as originally planned.

The prolonged delay near Bayonne severely depleted English morale, finances, and supplies, causing significant frustration among the troops. They remained largely idle, undersupplied, and ineffective until October 1512, by which time Ferdinand had achieved his objectives in Navarre without significant benefit to England’s broader strategic aims.

Political and Military Implications

This episode underscores the diplomatic complexity of early sixteenth-century European alliances, demonstrating Ferdinand of Aragon’s shrewd manipulation of England’s strategic objectives. Rather than aiding English interests directly, Ferdinand exploited the English presence primarily for Spanish gains in Navarre. England's strategic vulnerability, logistical difficulties, and inexperience in conducting distant continental warfare became painfully apparent, underscoring the precariousness of alliances during this turbulent period.

Consequences and Legacy

The ill-fated 1512 English campaign significantly damaged Anglo-Spanish trust, reshaped diplomatic perceptions, and contributed to cautionary English foreign policy in subsequent decades. Moreover, Ferdinand’s success in Navarre, facilitated by English support, permanently altered regional geopolitics, embedding the Iberian Peninsula within the broader narrative of Europe's shifting alliances. This episode foreshadowed England's cautious stance in future continental engagements, highlighting both the complexity of early 16th-century alliances and the strategic manipulation underlying European warfare and diplomacy.

Francis I Released from Captivity (March 1526)

On March 6, 1526, King Francis I is finally released from captivity following the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Pavia(February 1525). Escorted northward by the Imperial envoy, Charles de Lannoy, Francis makes his way toward the French border. On March 18, he crosses the Bidasoa River into Fuenterrabia (Hondarribia), reentering French territory for the first time since his imprisonment.

The terms of his release under the Treaty of Madrid (January 1526) have imposed harsh conditions, including relinquishing claims to territories in Italy and Burgundy and the surrendering of his two young sons, the Dauphin Francisand Prince Henry, as hostages to guarantee compliance. Simultaneously with the king’s return, the princes, escorted by their grandmother and regent, Louise of Savoy, and the French commander Odet de Foix, Viscount of Lautrec, journey southward, crossing into Spain at Bayonne, beginning their captivity as hostages at the Spanish court.

The symbolic exchange underscores the deep personal and political cost of Francis’s capture and release, highlighting both his weakened diplomatic position and France’s determination to avoid the harshest consequences of defeat.

Long-term Consequences and Significance

Francis’s forced concessions to Charles V—including the handing over of his sons—will profoundly shape French foreign policy, fostering resentment and fueling Francis’s future attempts to overturn the humiliating conditions. His immediate rejection of the terms of the treaty upon his return sets the stage for renewed conflict, continued rivalry between France and the Habsburg Empire, and ultimately, the formation of alliances—including with the Ottoman Empire—designed to counterbalance Habsburg supremacy in Europe.

France’s Roman Catholic Guise faction consolidates its power under Charles, Cardinal de Lorraine, who had become head of the family after the death of his brother Francois in 1563.

Protestant insurrections against repressive Spanish rule in the neighboring Low Countries prompt the cardinal to argue for more vigorous suppression of the French Huguenots.

Queen Mother Catherine de' Medici, touring the provinces with her son Charles IX as part of an effort to forge unity with the nobility, meets in Bayonne with Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, duque d’Alba, the “hard man” charged by Spanish Habsburg monarch Philip II with the subjugation of the Netherlands.

The alarm this raises in the Huguenot community increases when Alba marches his troops along the kingdom’s eastern borders, the "Spanish Road" from Italy to Flanders.

Rumor spreads that Catherine is plotting with the Habsburgs to exterminate the Continent’s Protestants.