The Near and Middle East (1828–1971 CE)

Empires in Decline, Nations in Transition, and Oil in Ascendancy

Geography & Environmental Context

The Near and Middle East includes three fixed subregions:

• The Near East — Israel, Egypt, Sudan, western Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Jordan, southwestern Turkey, and southwestern Cyprus.

• The Middle East — Iraq, Iran, Syria, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Qatar, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, eastern Jordan, eastern Saudi Arabia, and northern Oman.

• Southeast Arabia — southern Oman, eastern Yemen, and the island of Socotra.

This vast region links the Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Caspian Basin, bridging Africa, Europe, and Asia. It is dominated by deserts and highlands, punctuated by fertile river valleys (the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates) and strategic straits — the Suez Canal, the Bab el-Mandeb, and the Strait of Hormuz — that define global trade and geopolitics.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

Aridity remained the defining condition. The 19th century brought episodes of famine and epidemic following droughts in Egypt, Iran, and the Arabian Peninsula. Irrigation schemes and canal building, such as the Suez Canal (opened 1869) and the Assiut Barrage (1902), transformed riverine agriculture. Petroleum exploration and urban expansion in the 20th century accelerated desertification and water demand. Monsoon moisture sustained oases in Oman and Yemen, while seasonal Nile floods continued until the Aswan High Dam (1960–70) reshaped the river’s ecology.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Agrarian bases persisted in the Nile Valley, the Fertile Crescent, and the Iranian Plateau, producing wheat, cotton, dates, and fruits.

• Nomadic and pastoral tribes in Arabia, the Levant, and Sudan maintained camel and sheep herding, adapting to modern markets.

• Urbanization surged in Cairo, Istanbul, Tehran, Baghdad, Beirut, and Jeddah, intensified by European trade and oil wealth.

• Port cities—Aden, Basra, Kuwait City, Manama, and Doha—grew into nodes of global commerce.

Technology & Material Culture

European imperial penetration introduced telegraphs, railways (notably the Hejaz Railway, 1908), and modern weaponry. In the 20th century, oil extraction and refining brought pipelines, tankers, and industrial zones. Traditional crafts—carpets, calligraphy, metalwork, and ceramics—remained vital symbols of identity. Concrete architecture and Western education transformed cities, while mosques and bazaars continued as cultural anchors.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Trade routes: The Suez Canal reoriented world shipping; the Persian Gulf became an oil artery.

• Pilgrimage: The Hajj connected Muslims globally through Mecca and Medina.

• Migration: Rural–urban drift filled cities; labor migration later linked Yemenis, Egyptians, and Iranians to Gulf oil fields.

• Military corridors: The Near and Middle East served as theaters of imperial rivalries—British in the Gulf and Egypt, Russians in the Caucasus, Ottomans across Anatolia and Arabia.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Religion and reform: Islamic modernists such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh sought synthesis of faith and reason; Christian minorities in Lebanon and Armenia fostered education and journalism.

• Literature and art: The Nahda (Arab Renaissance) revived Arabic prose and poetry; Persian and Turkish writers blended realism with nationalism.

• Architecture: Cairo’s modern boulevards, Tehran’s avenues, and oil-era Gulf skylines redefined urban form while domed mosques and minarets remained emblems of continuity.

• Music and media: Radio and cinema from Cairo, Tehran, and Istanbul spread popular culture across linguistic and sectarian boundaries.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Desert agriculture expanded through artesian wells and canals; the introduction of cash crops like cotton in Egypt and tobacco in Iran restructured rural economies. Oases sustained date-palm and grain cultivation, while pastoralists adjusted routes to motor transport and border restrictions. In coastal cities, desalination and modern infrastructure emerged to offset water scarcity.

Political & Military Shocks

• Imperial decline and reform:

  • The Ottoman Empire weakened, culminating in its dissolution after World War I.

  • Egypt’s Muhammad Ali dynasty modernized administration and industry but fell under British occupation (1882).

  • Iran’s Qajar dynasty faced constitutional revolution (1905–11) and later Pahlavi modernization (from 1925).

• World Wars and mandates: British and French mandates carved up former Ottoman territories; Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Transjordan, and Palestine emerged under European oversight.

• Nationalism and revolution:

  • Turkey’s Republic (1923) under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk secularized and industrialized Anatolia.

  • Arab nationalism surged—Nasser’s Egypt championed anti-imperial unity.

  • Iran underwent the 1951 oil nationalization crisis and the White Revolution (1963).

  • The Zionist movement culminated in the creation of Israel (1948) and successive Arab–Israeli wars (1948, 1956, 1967).

• Oil and Cold War: The discovery of major oil fields (Iran 1908; Iraq 1927; Saudi Arabia 1938; Kuwait 1938) made the region central to global power politics. U.S. and Soviet rivalry deepened through alliances and arms races.

Transition

Between 1828 and 1971, the Near and Middle East transformed from imperial provinces and desert sultanates into a mosaic of nation-states, revolutionary republics, and monarchies bound by oil and ideology. The collapse of Ottoman and colonial empires unleashed nationalist movements, while petroleum wealth and Cold War geopolitics redefined economies and alliances. In the deserts of Arabia and the deltas of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates, modernization coexisted with faith, and cities like Cairo, Tehran, and Riyadh became centers of a region poised between deep tradition and global transformation

A military coup overthrows the royalist government in Yemen in 1962.

Nasser intervenes to support the new republican government against the Saudi Arabia-backed royalists, who are attempting to regain control.

This undertaking will prove to be a great drain on Egypt's financial and military resources

At the height of its involvement, Egypt will have seventy-five thousand troops in Yemen.

Egypt's intervention also increases inter-Arab tensions, especially between Saudi Arabia and Egypt.

Egypt's defeat at the hands of Israel in the June 1967 War will oblige it to withdraw its forces from Yemen and to seek peace.

A settlement will be achieved at a conference in Khartoum in 1967.

When Yemens' Imam Aḥmad ibn Yaḥyā died in September 1962, his son Muḥammad al-Badr succeeded him. Within a week, republican officers led by Abdullay al-Sallāl staged a coup, bombarding the royal palace in Sana‘a and proclaiming the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR). Al-Sallāl became its first head of state and prime minister.

Born near Sana‘a, educated at the al-Mutawakkiliyah Military College, and trained briefly in Egypt, al-Sallāl had served as a military attaché in Cairo, where he encountered Gamal Abdel Nasser’s Arab nationalist and republican ideas.

The overthrow sparks a prolonged civil war between republicans, backed by Egypt under Nasser, and royalists, supported by Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Western powers. Tens of thousands of Egyptian troops will fight in Yemen between 1962 and 1967.

Gamal Abdel Nasser takes the initiative to prevent a rightist reversal in Syria and reassert his leadership of the Arab cause.

The Egyptian president has been the fulcrum of Arab politics throughout the 1950s and early 1960s.

Nasser's success, however, is short-lived; his union with Syria had fallen apart in less than four years, the revolutionary government in Iraq has proven to be a competitor for power, and the presence of fifty thousand Egyptian troops in Yemen has failed to overcome the forces supporting the Yemeni imam, who is backed in turn by Saudi Arabia.

Moreover, his refusal to recognize Israel and Egypt's defeat by Israel in 1956 has forced him to divert vast sums into military channels that might have gone to implement his social revolution.

By the spring of 1967, Nasser's waning prestige, escalating Syrian-Israeli tensions, and the emergence of Eshkol as prime minister have set the stage for a third Arab-Israeli war.

The Near East, 1984 to 1995 CE: Turmoil, Conflict, and Shifting Alliances

Sudan: Famine, Revolt, and Military Coups

In 1984 and 1985, Sudan faces a devastating famine exacerbated by drought, placing millions at severe risk, especially in the western regions. Despite the urgency, the Sudanese regime initially attempts to conceal the crisis from international scrutiny. Economic troubles worsen as negotiations with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) lead the government to announce price hikes for basic commodities, sparking widespread unrest.

In March 1985, widespread dissatisfaction triggers mass demonstrations and strikes, particularly in the capital city, Khartoum, but also across Sudan's major urban centers. On April 2, 1985, a unified front of eight unions demands a general political strike aimed explicitly at ending the existing regime. The movement rapidly escalates, culminating in massive demonstrations and an almost total paralysis of governmental institutions and economic activity.

Amidst the escalating turmoil, on April 6, 1985, Lieutenant General Abd ar Rahman Siwar adh Dhahab leads a Sudanese Military Coup, overthrowing President Jaafar Nimeiry, who flees to Egypt. A fifteen-member Transitional Military Council (TMC) assumes control, promising a return to civilian rule.

Unstable Civilian Governments and Renewed Military Rule

In June 1986, Sadiq al Mahdi forms a fragile coalition government comprising his Umma Party, the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), the National Islamic Front (NIF), and four southern parties. Despite initial hopes, Mahdi's government proves weak and ineffective, plagued by internal factionalism, corruption, and personal rivalries.

Facing persistent governmental paralysis, Sadiq al Mahdi dismisses his cabinet within a year, citing their failure to draft a new penal code to replace Sharia, reach agreements with the IMF, resolve the ongoing Second Sudanese Civil War, or attract essential remittances from expatriates. A subsequent coalition government also proves ineffective, further destabilizing the nation.

In 1989, as peace negotiations with southern rebels are underway, General Omar al-Bashir leads another military coup, establishing a junta uninterested in negotiation. Al-Bashir consolidates power, ultimately declaring himself president and setting the stage for prolonged authoritarian rule.

Egypt: Mubarak’s Economic Challenges

Under President Hosni Mubarak, Egypt continues balancing its diplomatic relationship with Israel and reducing tensions with Arab neighbors. Internally, however, the country faces severe socio-economic challenges. Despite growth in agricultural and industrial output, Egypt struggles to cope with rapid population growth, urban poverty, and rising unemployment. Massive rural-to-urban migration exacerbates these problems, leading to widespread urban poverty, particularly evident in sprawling slums surrounding Cairo.

Regional Instability and the Arab-Israeli Conflict

This era sees intensifying regional conflicts and significant geopolitical shifts. In Palestine, the First Intifada (1987–1993) dramatically escalates tensions between Palestinians and Israelis, prompting international concern and intervention. This uprising underscores Palestinian grievances against Israeli occupation and fuels increased militancy on both sides.

The persistent Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon (ongoing from 1985 to 2000) exacerbates regional instability, resulting in protracted clashes and fostering environments conducive to sustained violence.

Diplomatic efforts, notably the landmark Oslo Accords of 1993 and the subsequent Oslo II Accords in 1995, temporarily renew hopes for peace by outlining frameworks for Palestinian self-governance. Despite these efforts, continuing violence and mutual distrust hinder substantial progress. Related negotiations continue with the Wye River Memorandum (initiated in 1995), underscoring ongoing challenges in securing lasting peace.

Yemen and Broader Regional Dynamics

The Yemeni Civil War of 1994 emerges as another significant regional conflict, illustrating deep-seated internal divisions exacerbated by the aftermath of Yemen’s earlier North-South conflicts.

The Impact of the Cold War’s End

The global Cold War (1947–1991) significantly shapes regional dynamics until its conclusion in the early 1990s. The ideological rivalry and superpower interventions heavily influence local conflicts, alliances, and power structures. Its conclusion sees a realignment of regional strategies and political relationships, affecting both domestic and international policies throughout the Near East.

Legacy of the Era

From 1984 to 1995, the Near East is marked by severe humanitarian crises, political instability, and complex regional conflicts. These events underscore the enduring challenges faced by Sudan, Egypt, and their regional neighbors, laying foundations for further political, economic, and social turmoil in subsequent decades.