Northeastern North America

(1780 to 1791 CE): Decisive Struggles, Frontier Expansion, and Indigenous Repercussions

The era 1780 to 1791 in Northeastern North America witnessed the decisive conclusion of the American Revolutionary War, the formation of the United States under a new Constitution, critical territorial reorganization in British Canada, and profound impacts on indigenous nations throughout the region. This period was marked by shifting frontiers, postwar migrations, severe epidemic outbreaks, and significant social, economic, and political restructuring.

Final Years of the Revolutionary War

Southern Campaigns and British Defeat

From 1780, the conflict in the southern colonies intensified, especially in South Carolina, where warfare devastated the region. British forces captured Charleston (May 1780), securing their largest victory of the war. However, guerrilla leaders like Francis Marion ("Swamp Fox"), Thomas Sumter, and Andrew Pickens conducted relentless raids against British and Loyalist forces. The decisive American victories at Kings Mountain (1780) and Cowpens (1781) turned the tide, culminating in British General Cornwallis’s surrender at Yorktown (October 1781).

Treaty of Paris (1783) and Territorial Reconfigurations

Recognition of American Independence

The Treaty of Paris (1783) formally recognized the independence of the United States, ceding all British claims east of the Mississippi River (except Florida, returned to Spain). This significantly reshaped the geopolitical landscape.

Indigenous Exclusion and Continuing Tensions

Indigenous nations were excluded from the treaty, leaving territorial claims unresolved. Tribes allied with Britain—such as parts of the Iroquois Confederacy and the Cherokee—suffered severe repercussions, including major land losses.

Westward Expansion and Frontier Hardships

Movement West of the Appalachians

As soon as the war ended in 1781, a significant westward migration originated in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina, rapidly extending beyond the Appalachian Mountains. Early settlers initially relied on hunting abundant deer, turkeys, and other game for survival. Gradually, livestock—hogs, sheep, cattle, and horses—became commonplace. Primitive lean-to shelters gave way to one-room log cabins, animal-skin clothing was replaced by homespun garments, and rudimentary farming communities took shape.

The restless pioneer ethos prompted continual westward movement, as settlers periodically uprooted themselves to establish new settlements fifty or a hundred miles further into the wilderness.

The Wilderness Road and Kentucky Settlements

The Wilderness Road, pioneered by Daniel Boone, became a primary corridor for settlers moving into Kentucky. Despite its steepness and rough conditions, traversable only by foot or horseback, thousands poured into Kentucky after 1783. Violent indigenous resistance was frequent; in 1784 alone, Native American warriors killed over one hundred travelers along the route. Among them was the grandfather of future president Abraham Lincoln, who was killed and scalped near Louisville in 1784.

In 1788, settlers founded Marietta, Ohio, the first permanent American settlement in the Northwest Territory, heralding further settlement west of the Appalachians.

Devastating Epidemics Among Plains Tribes

The Smallpox Epidemic of 1781

A devastating smallpox epidemic, originating in Mexico City (1779–1780), slowly traveled northward along indigenous trade routes, reaching the Northern Plains in 1781. Nations such as the Comanche, Shoshone, Mandan, and Hidatsa were severely affected.

The Mandan suffered catastrophic losses; their thirteen clans were reduced to only seven, losing three clan lineages altogether. Subsequently, survivors moved north approximately twenty-five miles and consolidated into two villages on opposite banks of the Missouri River, where remnants of the similarly devastated Hidatsa joined them for mutual defense. Raids by the Lakota Sioux and Crow warriors during and after the epidemic exacerbated their vulnerability.

Indigenous Resistance in the Northwest Territory

Following American independence, increased settlement in the Ohio Country (the newly designated Northwest Territory) triggered violent resistance by indigenous coalitions, including the Miami Confederacy and Shawnee, under leaders such as Little Turtle and Blue Jacket. They inflicted severe defeats upon American forces, culminating in St. Clair’s Defeat (1791), highlighting ongoing indigenous opposition to American expansion.

Shays' Rebellion and Constitutional Reform

Economic Instability and Shays' Rebellion (1786–1787)

Post-revolutionary economic prosperity quickly devolved into severe depression, characterized by widespread debt, delinquent taxes, and foreclosures. In Massachusetts, economic desperation erupted into violent protests known as Shays’ Rebellion, led by farmers against oppressive courts and debt imprisonment. The rebellion exposed critical weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation, notably the federal government's inability to regulate commerce or enforce taxation, galvanizing calls for governmental reform.

U.S. Constitution (1787–1791)

The Philadelphia Convention (1787) drafted the U.S. Constitution to address these governance issues, establishing a robust federal government divided into three branches. Ratified in 1788, the new government took effect with George Washington’s inauguration in 1789, followed by the adoption of the Bill of Rights (1791).

British Canada and Loyalist Migrations

Tens of thousands of Loyalists fleeing revolutionary persecution reshaped British-controlled Canada, prompting Britain to create New Brunswick from Nova Scotia (1784) and split Quebec into English-speaking Upper Canada and French-speaking Lower Canada in 1791, granting each an elected legislative assembly.

Northern Indigenous Societies and Economic Networks

Mandan and Plains Economies

The Mandan continued to prosper economically despite severe population losses. As key intermediaries in the fur and horse trade along the Upper Missouri River, they skillfully navigated commerce with competing European and American traders, solidifying their central role in regional trade networks despite ongoing threats from more militarized Plains nations.

Greenland Settlements and Epidemics

In Greenland’s Egedesminde Colony (Aasiaat), founded by missionary Niels Egede, European whalers inadvertently introduced smallpox epidemics during the 1770s and 1780s, significantly reducing indigenous populations and dramatically reshaping local demographics.

Cultural and Ideological Shifts

The Great Awakening’s Legacy

The evangelical fervor of the Great Awakening continued influencing cultural and political ideologies, fueling revolutionary notions of liberty, religious freedom, and individual rights, laying ideological foundations for American republicanism.

Education and Intellectual Expansion

The immediate postwar period saw increased emphasis on education, with institutions such as Transylvania University (established in 1780 in Kentucky), becoming centers of intellectual discourse in the expanding frontier society.

Legacy of the Era (1780–1791 CE)

Between 1780 and 1791, Northeastern North America experienced transformative shifts. The conclusion of the Revolutionary War and subsequent territorial expansion significantly altered regional geopolitics. Westward migrations profoundly reshaped the frontier, encountering violent resistance from indigenous nations and severe hardships, including devastating epidemics like the smallpox outbreak of 1781.

Internal tensions like Shays’ Rebellion exposed critical weaknesses in national governance, prompting constitutional reform. Simultaneously, Loyalist migrations restructured British Canadian territories. These complex interactions among settlers, indigenous nations, and emergent national governments created foundational dynamics influencing the region’s future trajectory.

The United States, having won its independence from Great Britain through revolution from 1775, remains threatened internally by destabilizing sectional conflicts over slavery, taxation, and the distribution of wealth.

After the signing of the Paris Peace Treaty ending the American Revolution in 1783, the United States has yet to form formal government organizations and the constitutional convention has yet to convene.

The prosperity that reigned at war's end soon devolves into a severe economic depression.

Property holders begin losing their possessions through seizures for overdue debts and delinquent taxes and become subject to debtor's imprisonment.

Demonstrations ensue, with threats of violence against the courts handling the enforcement and indictments.

In what comes to be known as Shays' Rebellion, farmers and working people in Massachusetts begin organizing in protest against dictatorial and oppressive governmental and court systems and against excessive salaries for government and court officials.

The authors of the Constitution are heavily influenced by the country's experience under the Articles of Confederation (1781-89), which had attempted to retain as much independence and sovereignty for the states as possible and to assign to the central government only those nationally important functions that the states could not handle individually.

The events of the years 1781 to 1787, including the national government's inability to act during Shays' Rebellion, show that the Articles are unworkable because they deprive the national government of many essential powers, including direct taxation and the ability to regulate interstate commerce.

Its framers hope that the new Constitution will remedy this problem.

Nathanael Greene's Southern Campaign showed remarkable strategic features.

He excelled in dividing, eluding, and tiring his opponent by long marches, and in actual conflict forcing the British to pay heavily for a temporary advantage, a price that they could not afford.

However, he had been defeated in every pitched battle which he fought against the British during his time as southern commander.

He has been greatly assisted by able subordinates, including Polish engineer Tadeusz Kościuszko, brilliant cavalry officers Henry ("Light-Horse Harry") Lee and William Washington, and partisan leaders Thomas Sumter, Andrew Pickens, Elijah Clarke, and Francis Marion.

In the end, Greene and his forces have liberated the southern states from British control.

When the Treaty of Paris ends the war, British forces control a couple of southern coastal cities, but Greene controls the rest.