Spain creates a protectorate in the coastal areas of Morocco in 1884.

While initial Spanish interest in the Sahara had been focused on using it as a port for the slave trade, by the 1700s Spain had transitioned economic activity on the Saharan coast towards commercial fishing.

After an agreement among the European colonial powers at the Berlin Conference in 1884 on the division of spheres of influence in Africa, Spain seizes control of Western Sahara and establishes it as a Spanish colony.

North Africa (1972–1983 CE)

Political Consolidation, Regional Tensions, and Economic Challenges

Between 1972 and 1983, North Africa faces a period characterized by political consolidation, intensified regional tensions, economic challenges, and shifting international alignments. This era is defined by the solidification of authoritarian regimes, contentious territorial disputes, and socioeconomic reforms influenced by fluctuating global economic conditions.

Algeria: Boumédiène’s Legacy and the Rise of Chadli Bendjedid

Under President Houari Boumédiène, Algeria continues its drive for socialist transformation, prioritizing heavy industrialization, land reform, and a centralized economy. The nation experiences significant infrastructural growth, funded largely by revenues from its oil and natural gas exports. Boumédiène also pursues an assertive foreign policy, advocating strongly for Third World solidarity and non-alignment.

Boumédiène’s sudden death in 1978 triggers political uncertainty until Colonel Chadli Bendjedid assumes the presidency in 1979. Bendjedid initiates cautious economic liberalization, easing state control and encouraging private sector involvement, though political reform remains limited. His early tenure sees increased internal debate over economic strategy, foreshadowing later reforms.

Tunisia: Stability Under Bourguiba Amid Social Pressures

Tunisia continues under the strong leadership of President Habib Bourguiba, who maintains his commitment to secularism, modernization, and Western-aligned economic policies. The period is marked by sustained investments in education, healthcare, and tourism, which contribute to modest economic growth.

Nevertheless, economic disparities, unemployment, and rural poverty persist, occasionally sparking social unrest. The government responds with increased repression of dissent, solidifying a single-party political system. Despite these tensions, Bourguiba’s international reputation remains largely positive, buoyed by his moderate stance in regional conflicts and Cold War geopolitics.

Libya: Gaddafi’s Radical Policies and International Isolation

Under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, Libya undergoes significant ideological, social, and political changes. Gaddafi intensifies his implementation of the Jamahiriya ("state of the masses") system, emphasizing direct governance by people's committees. He aggressively nationalizes key economic sectors, notably oil, providing substantial wealth used for expansive social welfare and infrastructure projects.

Internationally, Libya’s increasingly confrontational policies, including support for revolutionary movements and anti-Western stances, lead to growing isolation. By the early 1980s, Libya faces mounting tension with Western powers, notably the United States, resulting in diplomatic confrontations and economic sanctions.

Morocco: Hassan II’s Authoritarian Stability and the Western Sahara Conflict

In Morocco, King Hassan II maintains strict authoritarian control, simultaneously advancing cautious economic reforms aimed at attracting foreign investment and modernizing agriculture. However, political opposition is routinely suppressed, and human rights abuses become widespread.

The Western Sahara conflict escalates significantly after Morocco’s 1975 "Green March," aimed at annexing the territory following Spain’s withdrawal. Morocco’s claim to sovereignty sparks a protracted conflict with the Sahrawi Polisario Front, leading to guerrilla warfare and international diplomatic efforts to resolve the dispute. This conflict drains Moroccan resources and complicates regional diplomacy.

Regional Dynamics and Economic Fluctuations

Regionally, North Africa experiences mixed economic fortunes. The 1973 oil crisis temporarily boosts revenue for oil-exporting states such as Algeria and Libya, enabling ambitious development projects and social welfare programs. However, by the early 1980s, global oil price fluctuations, inflation, and economic mismanagement lead to increasing debt burdens and economic strain across the region.

Political authoritarianism remains entrenched, with limited scope for genuine political pluralism or dissent. Governments across North Africa prioritize stability and centralized control over democratic reform, employing various degrees of repression and patronage.

By 1983, North Africa stands at a complex crossroads: politically stable but economically vulnerable, regionally tense but internationally prominent. The subsequent years promise continued challenges shaped by unresolved conflicts, economic pressures, and domestic demands for greater freedom and social justice.

North Africa (1984–1995 CE)

Economic Struggles, Political Unrest, and International Realignments

The period between 1984 and 1995 in North Africa is marked by widespread economic difficulties, rising political unrest, significant international realignments, and ongoing regional tensions. Authoritarian regimes remain dominant, although socioeconomic pressures and global events increasingly challenge their stability and control.

Algeria: Economic Crisis and the Rise of Political Islam

Under President Chadli Bendjedid, Algeria faces deepening economic troubles exacerbated by declining oil and gas revenues in the mid-1980s. The government introduces economic liberalization measures aimed at encouraging private sector growth and foreign investment. However, these reforms lead to severe social dislocations, increased unemployment, and widening economic inequalities.

Public frustration culminates in widespread protests and riots in October 1988, prompting Bendjedid to initiate unprecedented political reforms, including a new constitution in 1989 that allows multiparty elections. These reforms inadvertently empower Islamist groups, particularly the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), which gains significant electoral support.

The FIS’s electoral victory in local elections in 1990, followed by a decisive win in the first round of parliamentary elections in December 1991, alarms the military and secular political elites. In January 1992, the military intervenes, cancels elections, forces Bendjedid’s resignation, and bans the FIS, triggering a brutal and prolonged civil war that plunges Algeria into violence and instability.

Tunisia: Transition from Bourguiba to Ben Ali

Tunisia experiences major political changes when the aging President Habib Bourguiba is deposed in a bloodless coup led by Prime Minister Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in November 1987. Ben Ali initially promises democratic reforms, liberalization, and greater political openness. Early reforms include limited political pluralism, amnesty for political prisoners, and increased media freedoms.

However, by the early 1990s, Ben Ali reverses these liberal policies, consolidating power through authoritarian measures, tightly controlled elections, suppression of political opposition—particularly Islamist groups—and extensive surveillance. Despite these restrictions, Tunisia maintains relative social stability and moderate economic growth through continued investment in education, healthcare, and tourism.

Libya: Confrontation, Sanctions, and Isolation

Under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, Libya’s confrontational foreign policy leads to escalating international isolation. Tensions with Western powers, especially the United States, intensify dramatically. In 1986, following accusations of Libyan involvement in terrorist activities, the United States launches airstrikes against Tripoli and Benghazi in retaliation.

Libya faces further international condemnation and isolation after the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, in 1988, attributed to Libyan intelligence operatives. The United Nations imposes severe economic sanctions on Libya in 1992, crippling its economy and isolating it diplomatically.

Domestically, Gaddafi continues his revolutionary Jamahiriya policies, relying heavily on security forces to suppress dissent. Economic hardships mount, as sanctions significantly affect Libya’s oil-dependent economy, leading to widespread shortages and social discontent.

Morocco: Hassan II’s Pragmatism and Continued Western Sahara Conflict

In Morocco, King Hassan II maintains his authoritarian rule but gradually introduces cautious political and economic reforms aimed at easing internal pressures and improving international relations. Limited political liberalization includes carefully managed multiparty parliamentary elections, while economic reforms seek to encourage foreign investment and private enterprise.

The Western Sahara conflict remains a significant source of tension and expenditure. Despite international efforts, including ceasefire negotiations sponsored by the United Nations in 1991, a final resolution remains elusive. The protracted conflict continues to drain Moroccan resources and complicate regional diplomacy, although Morocco maintains strong ties with Western allies, notably France and the United States.

Regional Dynamics and Global Influences

Throughout this period, North Africa is deeply affected by global geopolitical shifts, notably the end of the Cold War. The decline of Soviet influence alters regional alignments, prompting North African nations to recalibrate international alliances and economic strategies. The region’s oil-dependent economies experience severe strain due to fluctuating global prices, prompting varying degrees of economic reform and austerity measures.

The increasing strength of political Islam emerges as a major regional dynamic, influencing political developments and societal tensions across North Africa. Governments respond with repression or limited accommodation, while underlying social issues—such as unemployment, poverty, and lack of political freedom—remain largely unaddressed, contributing to persistent instability and social unrest.

By 1995, North Africa confronts ongoing challenges characterized by authoritarian resilience, economic volatility, and deepening social divisions. These conditions set the stage for further complexities in the years ahead, with prospects for reform, conflict, and social upheaval remaining uncertain.