Ottoman armies had overrun all of Croatia south of the Sava River in the early sixteenth century and slaughtered a weak Hungarian force at the Battle of Mohács in 1526.

Buda is captured in 1541; Turkish marauders then advance toward Austria.

After Mohács, Hungarian and Croatian nobles had elected the Habsburg Ferdinand I of Austria king of Hungary and Croatia.

To tighten its grip on Croatia and solidify its defenses, Austria restricts the powers of the Sabor, establishes a military border across Croatia, and recruits Germans, Hungarians, and Serbs and other Slavs to serve as peasant border guards.

This practice is the basis for the ethnic patchwork that survives today in Croatia, Slavonia, and Vojvodina.

Austria assumes direct control of the border lands and gives local independence and land to families who agree  to settle and guard those lands.

The area that they settle becomes known as the Military Frontier Province.

Orthodox border families also win freedom of worship, which draws stiff opposition from the Roman Catholic Church.

Religious ferment in Europe affects Croatian culture in the sixteenth century.

Many Croatian and Dalmatian nobles embrace the Protestant Reformation in the mid-sixteenth century, and in 1562 Stipan Konzul and Anton Dalmatin publish the first Croatian Bible.

The Counterreformation begins in Croatia and Dalmatia in the early seventeenth century, and the most powerful Protestant noblemen soon reconvert.

In 1609 the Sabor votes to allow only the Catholic faith in Croatia.

The Counterreformation enhances the cultural development of Croatia.

Jesuits found schools and publish grammars, a dictionary, and religious books that help hape the Croatian literary language.

Franciscans preach the Counterreformation in Ottoman-held regions.

The Croatian Parliament had invited the Habsburgs to assume control over Croatia after the Ottoman Turks invaded the Kingdom of Hungary in 1526 and destroyed the Hungarian army at the battle of the Mohács.

The Ottomans had after many fierce battles conquered all of today's Slavonia bit by bit in 1529, 1536, 1540, 1543 and 1552, but not the whole of the late medieval Kingdom of Slavonia (its borders extending west to the Sutla river), with the Habsburgs ruling over the western remains around Zagreb, today considered the Central Croatian region.

Turkish inroads in Croatia and Austria also trigger price increases for agricultural goods, and opportunistic landowners begin demanding payment in kind, rather than cash, from serfs.

Rural discontent explodes in 1573 when Matija Gubec leads an organized peasant rebellion that spreads quickly before panic-stricken nobles are able to quell it.

Venice repulses Ottoman attacks on Dalmatia for several centuries after the Battle of Mohács, and it had helped to push the Turks from the coastal area after 1693, but by the late eighteenth century, trade routes have shifted, Venice has declined, and Dalmatian ships stand idle.

Napoleon ends the Venetian Republic and defeats Austria; he then incorporates Dalmatia, Dubrovnik, and western Croatia as the French Illyrian Provinces.

France stimulates agriculture and commerce in the provinces, fights piracy, enhances the status of the Orthodox population, and stirs a Croatian national awakening.

In 1814 the military border and Dalmatia return to Austria when Napoleon is defeated; Hungary regains Croatia and Slavonia.

In 1816 Austria transforms most of the Illyrian Provinces into the Kingdom of Illyria, an administrative unit designed to counterbalance radical Hungarian nationalism and co-opt nascent movements for union of the South Slavs.

Austria keeps Dalmatia for itself and reduces the privileges of the Dalmatian nobles.

Eastern Southeast Europe (1708–1719 CE): Constitutional Developments and Shifting Alliances

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Serb Migrations and Military Border Expansion

Between 1708 and 1719 CE, large numbers of Serbs fleeing Ottoman oppression settled within the expanded Austrian military frontier (Vojna Krajina) in Slavonia and southern Hungary. These Serbs served as border guards for the Habsburg monarchy, establishing vibrant frontier communities that would later assert unique political rights and resist Croatian attempts to reincorporate the military border region.

Economic and Technological Developments

Ottoman Economic Exploitation under Phanariot Rule

With Ottoman authority reasserted after the failed Russian attempt to control Moldavia in 1711, the Ottoman Empire implemented a system of Greek Phanariot rule in both Wallachia and Moldavia. These Phanariot princes, who purchased their positions from the Ottoman court, aggressively extracted local wealth through heavy taxation and monopolistic practices, severely weakening the economic conditions in both principalities.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Increased Western and Russian Influence

The period witnessed increased cultural exchanges and influences from Western Europe and Russia. In territories under Habsburg control, Western Baroque styles continued to shape architecture and art, while Russian influence increased Orthodox cultural and religious connections in Wallachia and Moldavia, fostering a sense of shared Orthodox identity.

Social and Religious Developments

Orthodox Alliances and Russian Influence

Orthodox communities in the Ottoman-controlled principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia increasingly turned to the Orthodox Russian Empire under Tsar Peter the Great, hoping to secure assistance against Ottoman domination. This alignment reflected growing religious and cultural solidarity across Orthodox populations in Eastern Europe, fueled by Russia’s declared support for Orthodox communities within Ottoman territories.

Political Dynamics and Regional Rivalries

Phanariot Regime in Wallachia and Moldavia

Following Peter the Great’s failed military campaign in 1711, the Ottoman Sultan tightened control by installing Greek Phanariot princes from Constantinople in Wallachia and Moldavia. These rulers were effectively Ottoman administrators, fully dependent on their Turkish overlords, and administered their territories with ruthless efficiency aimed at maximizing short-term economic extraction.

Habsburg-Ottoman Territorial Adjustments

The 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz, reinforced by subsequent developments, led to significant territorial shifts. By 1718, Austrian victories had decisively ended Ottoman threats in regions such as Dalmatia, Croatia, and Hungary, leaving the Habsburg monarchy firmly in control and redefining political borders across Eastern Southeast Europe.

Constitutional and Legal Developments

The Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk (1710)

A landmark constitutional development occurred in 1710 with the Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk, drafted by Ukrainian Hetman Pylyp Orlyk. Though Ukraine at this time lay largely within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, this document established a groundbreaking separation of powers among legislative, executive, and judiciary branches. It curtailed executive authority and called for a democratically elected Cossack parliament, the General Council, significantly predating similar constitutional ideas later popularized in Western Europe by thinkers like Montesquieu.

Key Historical Events and Developments

• 1710: Adoption of Pylyp Orlyk’s Constitution, an early European example of a modern constitutional framework emphasizing separation of powers.

• 1711: Peter the Great’s unsuccessful attempt to seize Moldavia ends in failure, prompting Ottoman installation of Phanariot princes in Wallachia and Moldavia.

• 1718: Ottoman threat to Dalmatia ends as Austria firmly secures territories formerly held by the Ottoman Empire.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era from 1708 to 1719 CE reshaped Eastern Southeast Europe through significant constitutional innovation, demographic shifts, and strategic alliances. The introduction of Phanariot rule deeply impacted political and economic life in Romanian territories, while growing Russian influence hinted at future geopolitical alignments. The era’s constitutional developments, especially Orlyk’s innovative governance framework, established precedents of democratic and constitutional thought within the broader Eastern European context.

Western forces had routed a Turkish army besieging Vienna in 1683, then begin driving the Turks from Europe.

In the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz, the Turks cede most of Hungary, Croatia, and Slavonia to Austria, and by 1718 they no longer threaten Dalmatia.

During the advance, Austria expands its military border, and thousands of Serbs fleeing Turkish oppression settle as border guards in Slavonia and southern Hungary.

As the Turkish threat wanes, Croatian nobles demand reincorporation of the military border into Croatia.

Austria, which uses the guards as an inexpensive standing military force, rejects these demands, and the guards themselves oppose abrogation of their special privileges.

Eastern Southeast Europe (1720–1731 CE): Cultural Tensions, Migration, and Enlightenment Influence

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Serb Migration into the Habsburg Military Frontier

Continuing throughout the early eighteenth century, thousands of Serbs fleeing Ottoman persecution settled in the Austrian-controlled Military Frontier (Militärgrenze) in Slavonia and southern Hungary. This settlement introduced a large Orthodox Serb population into traditionally Catholic Croatian and Hungarian regions, significantly transforming the demographic and cultural landscape. Despite pressures from Croatian nobles to reincorporate these territories, Austria retained control, using the Serb guards as a cost-effective standing military force. The guards themselves resisted reintegration, valuing their unique privileges under Habsburg protection.

Economic and Social Developments

Serbian Prosperity in Southern Hungary

The Serbs who settled in southern Hungary prospered economically, benefiting from fertile agricultural lands along the Danubian plain. This stability allowed a Serbian middle class to emerge, bolstered by monasteries that became key centers of education and cultural renewal, fostering national pride and identity even among the broader, often illiterate Serbian population.

Ottoman Deterioration and Serbian Hardship

Conversely, the Serbs remaining within Ottoman-controlled territories continued to face deteriorating social and economic conditions. The weakening of centralized Ottoman authority led to increased attacks from rogue soldiers and heightened corruption, exacerbated by the sultan's replacement of local Serbian clergy with exploitative Greek priests.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Greek Cultural Flourishing in Wallachia under Nicholas Mavrocordatos

Under the Phanariot ruler Nicholas Mavrocordatos—who served multiple terms as prince of Wallachia and was reinstated after the Peace of Passarowitz (1718)—significant cultural transformations took place. Nicholas established a lavish Byzantine-inspired court in Bucharest, actively introducing Greek manners, language, and dress to Wallachian society.

Architectural and Intellectual Patronage

Nicholas Mavrocordatos founded important libraries and commissioned notable architectural projects, including the monumental Văcăreşti Monastery and the elegant Stavropoleos Church (1724), constructed by Archimandrite Ioanichie Stratonikeas in central Bucharest. The monastery complex was economically sustained by revenues from a nearby inn, reflecting a prevalent economic model of the era.

Intellectual and Religious Developments

Enlightenment Influence in Wallachia

Nicholas Mavrocordatos was deeply influenced by the European Enlightenment, reflected in his scholarly endeavors and patronage of intellectual figures from across Europe, including Daniel de Fonseca and Stephan Bergler. His private library became one of Europe's most esteemed collections, and he maintained active correspondence with renowned religious and intellectual figures such as Jean Leclerc, William Wake, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Chrysanthus, Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem.

Literary Contributions

Nicholas himself authored influential literary and philosophical works, notably the original Greek text Peri kathekonton (Liber de Officiis, published in Bucharest, 1719), and the pioneering Greek novel Philotheou Parerga (The Leisures of Philotheos). His scholarly activities and publications fostered increased Western European awareness of Wallachia, marking significant cultural exchange, exemplified by local chronicler Radu Popescu, who recorded contemporary events in Great Britain, including the ascension of King George II.

Political Dynamics and Regional Rivalries

Austro-Ottoman Struggles and Religious Tensions

Although Austria had taken control of Serbian regions south of the Sava River following the treaty of Passarowitz, Austrian Jesuit missionaries aggressively promoted Catholicism, leading to widespread resentment among Orthodox Serbs, who thus experienced tensions and antagonism toward both their Ottoman and Austrian overlords.

Continuity of Phanariot Rule in Wallachia

Upon Nicholas Mavrocordatos's death in 1730, his son Constantine Mavrocordatos succeeded him as prince of Wallachia, continuing the practice of Greek Phanariot appointments made directly by the Ottoman Porte. Constantine would notably serve multiple terms as prince of both Wallachia and Moldavia until 1769, reinforcing Phanariot influence over these principalities.

Key Historical Events and Developments

• 1724: Construction of the Stavropoleos Church in central Bucharest.

• 1730: Death of Nicholas Mavrocordatos, succeeded by his son Constantine Mavrocordatos as prince of Wallachia, continuing the Phanariot governance established by Ottoman authority.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era from 1720 to 1731 CE significantly shaped Eastern Southeast Europe's cultural, religious, and social landscapes. The migration and establishment of Serbian communities within the Austrian Military Frontier transformed regional demographics and cultural identity. Simultaneously, Wallachia's intellectual flourishing under Phanariot rule introduced Enlightenment ideas, fostering stronger cultural exchanges between Eastern Europe and the West. Despite political instability and religious tensions, these developments laid the groundwork for future nationalist movements and cultural renaissances in the Balkans.

Eastern Southeast Europe (1732–1743 CE): Cultural Enlightenment and Social Struggles

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Continuing Serb Settlements and Frontier Life

Between 1732 and 1743 CE, the Serb communities settled within the Austrian Military Frontier in southern Hungary and Slavonia continued to thrive, further strengthening their demographic presence. These Serb populations maintained a distinctive cultural identity through Orthodox religious practices and customs, reinforcing the ethnic complexity of the Habsburg domains.

Economic and Social Developments

Increasing Hardship under Ottoman Administration

In the Ottoman-controlled territories, especially in Serbia, Bulgaria, and the Danubian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia), the period was marked by economic difficulties and intensifying exploitation. Heavy taxation, corrupt administration, and oppressive feudal obligations intensified social tensions, leading to periodic local unrest.

Agrarian Distress in Wallachia and Moldavia

The agrarian system in Wallachia and Moldavia remained harsh, with most peasants subject to increasingly oppressive serfdom and taxation. Wealthy boyars expanded their control over land, limiting peasants' freedoms and exacerbating rural poverty. The Phanariot princes, appointed by the Ottoman Porte, heavily taxed their subjects, enriching themselves while diminishing local autonomy.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Phanariot Cultural Patronage

Under the continuing Phanariot rule in Wallachia and Moldavia, cultural life experienced notable enrichment. Princes such as Constantine Mavrocordatos (who repeatedly ruled both principalities during this period) sponsored artistic and literary endeavors, supported the establishment of printing presses, and promoted the translation and dissemination of religious and philosophical texts, reflecting broader European Enlightenment influences.

Monastic and Architectural Flourishing

Monastic and ecclesiastical architecture continued to prosper, exemplified by the completion and embellishment of important monasteries and churches. Religious institutions remained vital centers of literacy, artistic production, and education, contributing to the preservation of national cultural identity amidst foreign rule.

Intellectual and Religious Developments

Continuing Enlightenment Influence

The intellectual currents of the European Enlightenment persisted in shaping the cultural landscape of the Danubian Principalities, particularly through scholarly endeavors, literary production, and the spread of Enlightenment ideas among educated elites. The vibrant intellectual milieu fostered greater interaction with Western Europe, introducing progressive concepts in philosophy, governance, and social organization.

Tensions between Orthodoxy and Catholic Influence

In Austrian-controlled territories, the forced Catholicization policies and aggressive missionary activities continued to fuel tensions and resistance among the Orthodox Serbian populations. Orthodox Serbs viewed these activities as threats to their religious traditions and cultural autonomy, further deepening their resistance to Habsburg rule. The Orthodox Serbs increasingly looked to the Russian tsar for support, as well as to the Serbian Church in southern Hungary, seeking spiritual and political aid against religious and cultural pressures.

Political Dynamics and Regional Rivalries

Continued Phanariot Governance

Ottoman-appointed Phanariot rulers, especially the influential Constantine Mavrocordatos, maintained their dominance over Wallachia and Moldavia, employing strategies of diplomacy, bribery, and administrative efficiency to manage their precarious positions between Ottoman overlords and local boyar elites. Their rule, despite its cultural patronage, was widely resented for its heavy taxation and corrupt administration.

Habsburg-Ottoman Rivalries

The Austro-Ottoman frontier remained politically sensitive, with ongoing tensions despite the temporary peace established by the Treaty of Passarowitz (1718). Both empires maintained significant military presences along their frontiers, and Austria continued to rely on the Serb frontier guards in its Military Frontier as a strategic buffer against potential Ottoman incursions.

Key Historical Events and Developments

• Continued patronage and cultural contributions of Constantine Mavrocordatos as Prince of Wallachia and Moldavia.

• Ongoing cultural and educational investments by Phanariot rulers, fostering Enlightenment-inspired intellectual growth.

• Increased resistance to Catholicization among Serbian populations within Habsburg territories, prompting appeals to Russian support and reliance on the Serbian Church in Hungary.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 1732 to 1743 CE further highlighted the cultural tensions, economic disparities, and political rivalries shaping Eastern Southeast Europe. Despite harsh administrative conditions under Ottoman and Habsburg rule, intellectual and cultural life flourished, laying foundations for future nationalist movements. The resistance to forced religious conversions solidified Serbian and Romanian Orthodox identities, which would later play a critical role in regional nationalist awakenings.

Eastern Southeast Europe (1744–1755 CE): Advocacy, Religious Struggles, and Cultural Patronage

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Continued Serb Presence in Habsburg Territories

Between 1744 and 1755 CE, Serb settlements continued to prosper in the Austrian Military Frontier in southern Hungary and Slavonia. These communities maintained strong cultural and religious identities, serving as a critical buffer against Ottoman incursions and contributing significantly to the ethnic and cultural complexity within the Habsburg domains.

Economic and Social Developments

Intensifying Economic Hardship

Ottoman-controlled regions, including Wallachia, Moldavia, Serbia, and Bulgaria, continued facing severe economic hardship. Exploitative taxation, corrupt governance by local officials, and feudal burdens deepened agrarian distress and rural poverty, further aggravating social tensions and prompting occasional local resistance.

Agrarian and Feudal Challenges in Wallachia and Moldavia

In Wallachia and Moldavia, land distribution had dramatically shifted as wealthy boyars increasingly controlled vast estates, tightening their grip over peasants through oppressive feudal obligations. Peasant freedoms were severely limited, intensifying rural misery and unrest. Princes who sought reform risked undermining their financial standing with the Ottoman Porte, where princely positions were often secured through bribery and exploitation.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Enlightened Patronage of Phanariot Princes

Phanariot rulers continued their cultural patronage, notably exemplified by Constantine Mavrocordatos, who repeatedly governed Wallachia and Moldavia during this era. The Phanariots promoted literature, established printing presses, and sponsored religious, educational, and architectural projects reflecting Enlightenment influences. Their efforts significantly enriched the cultural landscape despite their generally unpopular governance.

Architectural and Ecclesiastical Developments

Significant architectural achievements included the continued embellishment of monasteries and churches. Religious institutions remained crucial centers for literacy, education, and cultural preservation, ensuring continuity of local identity amidst foreign rule. The era also witnessed notable construction, such as the completion of monasteries and churches initiated in earlier periods.

Intellectual and Religious Developments

Inocentiu Micu Klein’s Advocacy in Transylvania

The struggle for equality in Transylvania found its first formidable advocate in Inocentiu Micu Klein, a Uniate bishop who tirelessly championed the Romanian cause from 1729 to 1744. Klein repeatedly petitioned Vienna, advocating for Romanian rights in the Transylvanian Diet, asserting that Romanians, despite their significant contributions in taxes and military service, suffered unjust political exclusion and economic exploitation. Although his petitions failed to gain immediate support, his persistent advocacy set the foundation for future nationalist movements.

Continued Orthodox-Catholic Tensions

Religious tensions persisted as the Habsburg authorities intensified efforts to enforce Catholicism among Orthodox Serb populations. Orthodox Serbs resisted fiercely, relying increasingly on spiritual and political support from the Serbian Church in southern Hungary and from the Orthodox Russian tsar, further deepening their resistance to Habsburg religious policies.

Political Dynamics and Regional Rivalries

Rivalries in Wallachia and Moldavia

In Wallachia, Matei Basarab had become the last prominent local ruler from a major family lineage, while in Moldavia, Vasile Lupu of Albanian descent had established his rule. The ambitions and conflicts between these princes weakened both principalities precisely when Ottoman power was declining. Despite these political rivalries, both rulers were enlightened patrons who promoted education, religion, and legal reforms, setting up printing presses and disseminating cultural and religious literature.

Habsburg-Ottoman Relations

The frontier between the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires remained sensitive, with both sides maintaining significant military presence. The Austrians relied heavily on Serbian frontier guards to safeguard against Ottoman incursions, solidifying the strategic importance of Serb settlements within the Habsburg military structure.

Key Historical Events and Developments

• Persistent advocacy by Inocentiu Micu Klein for Romanian rights in Transylvania, despite resistance from the established nobility.

• Continued cultural and educational patronage by Phanariot princes, particularly under Constantine Mavrocordatos.

• Escalating Orthodox resistance to enforced Catholicization in Habsburg territories, bolstered by external support from the Russian tsar and the Serbian Church.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 1744 to 1755 CE was characterized by intense social advocacy, religious struggles, and significant cultural patronage, shaping the trajectory of nationalist movements in Eastern Southeast Europe. Despite ongoing economic hardship and political tensions, the intellectual, cultural, and religious developments during this era played a crucial role in fostering resilient national identities, which would later drive movements for independence and reform.