The Middle East (1828–1971 CE): Qajar and Ottoman Struggles, Oil Empires, and Cold War Realignments

Geography & Environmental Context

The Middle East includes Iraq, Iran, Syria, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Qatar, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, most of Turkey (except its European and southwestern parts), eastern Jordan, nearly all of Lebanon, eastern Saudi Arabia, and northern Oman. Anchors include the Tigris–Euphrates basin, the Zagros and Caucasus ranges, the Iranian plateau, the Caspian littoral, the Levantine corridor, and the Persian/Arabian Gulf. This subregion connected Mediterranean, Russian, and Indian Ocean worlds while enduring pressures from empire, revolution, and global energy demand.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The waning Little Ice Age gave way to modern warming trends, but aridity remained dominant. The Fertile Crescent endured cycles of drought and flood, disrupting agriculture. The Caspian and Persian Gulf coasts supported fisheries and palm groves, while deserts of Iraq, Syria, and Arabia constrained settlement. Earthquakes (notably in Iran and Turkey) punctuated the landscape. After the mid-20th century, dams like the Aswan High Dam’s regional counterparts (e.g., Iran’s Karaj Dam, Turkey’s Keban project) sought to control rivers and support hydroelectricity.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Agriculture: Wheat, barley, and rice dominated in Mesopotamia and Iran’s plains; date groves thrived in Basra, Khuzestan, and Gulf oases. Tobacco, cotton, and citrus became key cash crops in Syria, Lebanon, and northern Iran.

• Pastoralism: Nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes (Bedouin, Bakhtiari, Kurdish, Turkmen) persisted, though sedentarization campaigns curtailed mobility in the 20th century.

• Urbanization: Cities like Baghdad, Damascus, Tehran, Tabriz, Aleppo, and Baku grew as administrative centers. Beirut blossomed as a Levantine port; Gulf towns like Manama, Doha, and Dubai remained small but were transformed by oil after the 1950s.

• Oil settlements: From the 1900s, Abadan, Kirkuk, Dhahran, and Bahrain became boomtowns linked to Anglo-Iranian and American oil companies.

Technology & Material Culture

• 19th century: Telegraph lines, railways (Berlin–Baghdad, Hejaz, Trans-Iranian), and steam navigation linked the region to Europe.

• 20th century: Oil refineries, pipelines (Kirkuk–Haifa, Abadan–Mediterranean), and dams modernized infrastructure. Cars, radios, and cinemas spread after WWII; by the 1960s, televisions and concrete apartment blocks reshaped urban life.

• Everyday life: Bazaar craft traditions—carpets, textiles, ceramics—coexisted with imported mass goods. Mosques, churches, and synagogues continued as architectural anchors.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Imperial routes: Russian expansion in the Caucasus (taking Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan) and British routes through the Gulf redefined boundaries.

• Trade: Caravans from Iran and Iraq moved wool, carpets, and livestock; steamships carried oil and pilgrims.

• Pilgrimage: Shiʿi shrines at Najaf and Karbala attracted millions; Sunni routes to Mecca drew eastern pilgrims via Basra and Gulf ports.

• Oil corridors: Tankers carried Gulf crude to Europe and Asia; pipelines bound Kirkuk and Abadan to Mediterranean ports.

• Diaspora & labor: Armenians, Assyrians, and Kurds migrated amid wars; Palestinian refugees after 1948 and 1967 transformed Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Religion: Islam predominated (Sunni in Anatolia, Syria, Iraq; Shiʿi in Iran, southern Iraq, eastern Arabia); Christian minorities (Armenian, Assyrian, Maronite, Greek Orthodox) and Jewish communities remained vital until large-scale emigration after 1948.

• Intellectual life: The Nahda (Arab Renaissance) spread through Beirut, Damascus, and Baghdad; Iranian reformers blended constitutionalism with Shiʿi thought.

• Arts & media: Persian poetry, Arabic novels, Turkish press, and Levantine theater flourished; postwar Egyptian cinema circulated regionally. Radio speeches—Nasser, Mossadegh, Baʿath leaders—became political rituals.

• Identity movements: Pan-Arabism, pan-Islamism, and early pan-Turkism shaped discourse. Kurdish nationalism emerged, while Zionist movements abroad affected regional politics through immigration to neighboring Palestine.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Irrigation: Canals in Iraq and Iran expanded, though salinization plagued Mesopotamian soils.

• Oases: Wells, qanats, and date-palm agroforestry sustained Gulf and Iranian plateau communities.

• Nomadic strategies: Seasonal migration and diversified herds buffered risk; modern states sought to sedentarize tribes, often disrupting resilience.

• Urban adaptation: Markets, hammams, and communal charities supported survival in famine and flood; post-WWII welfare states extended these functions through subsidies and public works.

Political & Military Shocks

• Ottoman decline & Russian advance: Russo-Persian wars led to treaties (Turkmenchay 1828) ceding Caucasian lands to Russia. Ottoman Syria and Iraq faced autonomy movements.

• Iran: The Qajar dynasty (1789–1925) managed concessions to Britain and Russia, sparking nationalist protest; the 1906 Constitutional Revolution curtailed monarchy briefly.

• Iraq: British occupied Mesopotamia in WWI; mandate rule (1920–32) preceded monarchy and eventual 1958 revolution.

• Syria & Lebanon: French mandate (1920–46); independence brought coups and eventual Baʿathist ascendancy.

• Turkey: Atatürk’s republic (1923) reformed Anatolia’s western and central regions, overlapping with this subregion’s borders in Adana and southeastern Turkey.

• Oil politics: 1901 D’Arcy concession (Iran), 1908 oil discovery at Masjed Soleyman, and formation of Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later BP). Gulf sheikhdoms signed British treaties, setting the stage for independence in the 1960s–70s.

• Arab–Israeli conflict: Though Israel itself lies outside this subregion, wars of 1948 and 1967 deeply reshaped its neighbors—Jordan lost East Jerusalem, Syria lost the Golan, Lebanon absorbed refugees.

• Revolutions & coups: Egypt’s Free Officers inspired Iraq (1958) and Syria (1963); Iran’s Mossadegh nationalized oil (1951) before a 1953 coup restored the Shah.

Transition

Between 1828 and 1971, the Middle East was remade from Ottoman and Qajar borderlands into a set of oil-rich nation-states entangled in global power struggles. Early decades saw imperial encroachment, concessions, and mandates; the 20th century brought oil exploitation, nationalist revolts, and Cold War alignments. The rise of Baʿathism, Arab socialism, and pan-Islamic calls reshaped identity, while Gulf emirates edged toward independence under British withdrawal (1971). By the end of this period, pipelines, refineries, and revolutionary movements had replaced caravan and oasis rhythms, making the Middle East both the strategic heart of the Cold War and the stage for new conflicts over sovereignty, resources, and ideology.

The Near and Middle East (1828–1971 CE)

Empires in Decline, Nations in Transition, and Oil in Ascendancy

Geography & Environmental Context

The Near and Middle East includes three fixed subregions:

• The Near East — Israel, Egypt, Sudan, western Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Jordan, southwestern Turkey, and southwestern Cyprus.

• The Middle East — Iraq, Iran, Syria, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Qatar, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, eastern Jordan, eastern Saudi Arabia, and northern Oman.

• Southeast Arabia — southern Oman, eastern Yemen, and the island of Socotra.

This vast region links the Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Caspian Basin, bridging Africa, Europe, and Asia. It is dominated by deserts and highlands, punctuated by fertile river valleys (the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates) and strategic straits — the Suez Canal, the Bab el-Mandeb, and the Strait of Hormuz — that define global trade and geopolitics.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

Aridity remained the defining condition. The 19th century brought episodes of famine and epidemic following droughts in Egypt, Iran, and the Arabian Peninsula. Irrigation schemes and canal building, such as the Suez Canal (opened 1869) and the Assiut Barrage (1902), transformed riverine agriculture. Petroleum exploration and urban expansion in the 20th century accelerated desertification and water demand. Monsoon moisture sustained oases in Oman and Yemen, while seasonal Nile floods continued until the Aswan High Dam (1960–70) reshaped the river’s ecology.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Agrarian bases persisted in the Nile Valley, the Fertile Crescent, and the Iranian Plateau, producing wheat, cotton, dates, and fruits.

• Nomadic and pastoral tribes in Arabia, the Levant, and Sudan maintained camel and sheep herding, adapting to modern markets.

• Urbanization surged in Cairo, Istanbul, Tehran, Baghdad, Beirut, and Jeddah, intensified by European trade and oil wealth.

• Port cities—Aden, Basra, Kuwait City, Manama, and Doha—grew into nodes of global commerce.

Technology & Material Culture

European imperial penetration introduced telegraphs, railways (notably the Hejaz Railway, 1908), and modern weaponry. In the 20th century, oil extraction and refining brought pipelines, tankers, and industrial zones. Traditional crafts—carpets, calligraphy, metalwork, and ceramics—remained vital symbols of identity. Concrete architecture and Western education transformed cities, while mosques and bazaars continued as cultural anchors.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Trade routes: The Suez Canal reoriented world shipping; the Persian Gulf became an oil artery.

• Pilgrimage: The Hajj connected Muslims globally through Mecca and Medina.

• Migration: Rural–urban drift filled cities; labor migration later linked Yemenis, Egyptians, and Iranians to Gulf oil fields.

• Military corridors: The Near and Middle East served as theaters of imperial rivalries—British in the Gulf and Egypt, Russians in the Caucasus, Ottomans across Anatolia and Arabia.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Religion and reform: Islamic modernists such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh sought synthesis of faith and reason; Christian minorities in Lebanon and Armenia fostered education and journalism.

• Literature and art: The Nahda (Arab Renaissance) revived Arabic prose and poetry; Persian and Turkish writers blended realism with nationalism.

• Architecture: Cairo’s modern boulevards, Tehran’s avenues, and oil-era Gulf skylines redefined urban form while domed mosques and minarets remained emblems of continuity.

• Music and media: Radio and cinema from Cairo, Tehran, and Istanbul spread popular culture across linguistic and sectarian boundaries.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Desert agriculture expanded through artesian wells and canals; the introduction of cash crops like cotton in Egypt and tobacco in Iran restructured rural economies. Oases sustained date-palm and grain cultivation, while pastoralists adjusted routes to motor transport and border restrictions. In coastal cities, desalination and modern infrastructure emerged to offset water scarcity.

Political & Military Shocks

• Imperial decline and reform:

  • The Ottoman Empire weakened, culminating in its dissolution after World War I.

  • Egypt’s Muhammad Ali dynasty modernized administration and industry but fell under British occupation (1882).

  • Iran’s Qajar dynasty faced constitutional revolution (1905–11) and later Pahlavi modernization (from 1925).

• World Wars and mandates: British and French mandates carved up former Ottoman territories; Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Transjordan, and Palestine emerged under European oversight.

• Nationalism and revolution:

  • Turkey’s Republic (1923) under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk secularized and industrialized Anatolia.

  • Arab nationalism surged—Nasser’s Egypt championed anti-imperial unity.

  • Iran underwent the 1951 oil nationalization crisis and the White Revolution (1963).

  • The Zionist movement culminated in the creation of Israel (1948) and successive Arab–Israeli wars (1948, 1956, 1967).

• Oil and Cold War: The discovery of major oil fields (Iran 1908; Iraq 1927; Saudi Arabia 1938; Kuwait 1938) made the region central to global power politics. U.S. and Soviet rivalry deepened through alliances and arms races.

Transition

Between 1828 and 1971, the Near and Middle East transformed from imperial provinces and desert sultanates into a mosaic of nation-states, revolutionary republics, and monarchies bound by oil and ideology. The collapse of Ottoman and colonial empires unleashed nationalist movements, while petroleum wealth and Cold War geopolitics redefined economies and alliances. In the deserts of Arabia and the deltas of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates, modernization coexisted with faith, and cities like Cairo, Tehran, and Riyadh became centers of a region poised between deep tradition and global transformation

The Al Saud are not the only threat to the Trucial States.

Despite its treaty agreement with Britain, Bahrain on several occasions claims Qatar because of the Al Khalifa involvement on the peninsula.

The Omanis and Iranians have also claimed Bahrain because both have held the island at various times.

Furthermore, the Ottomans claim Bahrain occasionally and try throughout the latter part of the nineteenth century to establish their authority in Kuwait and Qatar.

The British, during the next hundred years, sign a series of treaties having wide-ranging provisions with other tribes in the gulf.

As a result, by the end of the First World War, leaders from Oman to Iraq have essentially yielded control of their foreign relations to Britain.

Abu Dhabi enters into arrangements similar to those of Dubai and Bahrain in 1835, Kuwait in 1899, and Qatar in 1916.

The treaty whose terms convey the most representative sense of the relationship between Britain and the gulf states is the Exclusive Agreement of 1882.

This text specified that the signatory gulf states (members of the present-day UAE) cannot make any international agreements or host any foreign agent without British consent.

Gulf leaders, because of their concessions to the UK, accept the need for Britain to protect them from their more powerful neighbors.

The main threat comes from the Al Saud in central Arabia.

Although the Ottomans had defeated the first Wahhabi empire of the Al Saud around 1820, the family rises up again about thirty years later; it threatens not only the Al Qasimi, who by this time have largely abandoned Wahhabi Islam, but also the Al Khalifa in Bahrain and the Ibadi sultan in Oman.

The Al Saud also threaten Qatar in the early 1900s, despite that country's Wahhabi rulers.

Only with British assistance can the Al Thani and other area rulers retain their authority.

The situation concerning Qatari piracy of Persian Gulf shipping has remained unsettled for decades until a dispute between the Bahraini Al Khalifahs, who continue to hold some claim to Az Zubarah, and the Qatari residents escalates into a major confrontation in 1867, when Bahrain arrests a Qatari Bedouin in the Qatari mainland and deports him to Bahrain.

In response, the Qataris, led by the Naim tribe, defeat the Bahraini army that is based on the peninsula, effectively expelling them.

These tensions lead Bahrain, allied with Abu Dhabi, to attack Qatar in October 1867.

The Bahraini Hakim Mohammed al Khalifa, sends his brother, Ali Al Khalifa, to command an army of two thousand men from Bahrain's ally, Abu Dhabi, to attack Qatar, sacking and looting Biddah (Doha) and Al Wakrah, in the course of which Biddah is virtually destroyed.

A Qatari counterattack follows, resulting in the destruction of most of the Bahraini naval vessels deployed.

The 1868 attack results in some one thousand killed and six hundred ships destroyed.

Britain had previously regarded Qatar as a Bahraini dependency, but the attack by Bahrain, and the Qatari counterattack, spurs the British political agent, Colonel Lewis Pelly, to impose a settlement in 1868.

His mission to Bahrain and Qatar and the resultant peace treaty implicitly recognize the distinctness of Qatar from Bahrain and explicitly acknowledge the position of Mohammad bin Thani, an important representative of the peninsula's tribes.

Until this point, the Al-Thani clan had been only one among several important families on the peninsula.

Qasim ibn Muhammad privately complains of the Ottoman presence in Qatar, but he hopes that with Ottoman support he can dominate those shaykhs in other towns who oppose him and rebuff Bahrain's claims on Az Zubarah.

These claims are obviated in 1878, however, when Qasim ibn Muhammad destroys the town as punishment for the piracy of the Naim, a tribe that resides in the north of Qatar but is loyal to the shaykh of Bahrain.

The Middle East: 1888–1899 CE

Ottoman Stagnation and Armenian Unrest

From 1888 to 1899, the Ottoman Empire experiences deepening stagnation under Sultan Abdul Hamid II, whose autocratic rule continues to suppress constitutional reform and centralize power. Armenian unrest significantly intensifies as nationalist movements demand greater autonomy and protection from Ottoman abuses. This unrest culminates in severe atrocities against Armenians, notably the Hamidian Massacres (1894–1896), during which approximately three hundred thousand Armenians are killed on direct orders from the Ottoman government. These atrocities provoke international condemnation, notably from Russia and Britain, highlighting the empire’s vulnerabilities and further eroding its international standing. Armenian revolutionary groups, particularly the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnak), grow stronger, advocating autonomy within both the Russian and Ottoman empires. Ethnic tensions are exacerbated by the rapid growth of the Kurdish population in Anatolia and the immigration of Muslims from the Balkans and Caucasus, making Armenians increasingly endangered.

Lebanese Cultural Renaissance and Political Ambivalence

Lebanon continues its intellectual and cultural renaissance, marked by the influential American University of Beirut (founded 1866) and St. Joseph’s University (1875). Lebanese intellectual and literary circles flourish, significantly impacting broader Arab intellectual movements. Despite these cultural advances, Lebanon’s political landscape remains fragmented. Sectarian tensions resurface, exacerbated by the harsh rule of Abdul Hamid II, prompting Arab nationalists in Beirut and Damascus to form clandestine political groups. Maronite Christians debate secession, Greek Orthodox Christians advocate integration within an independent Syria, Sunni Muslims uphold Ottoman unity, and Druze and Shia communities cautiously favor neutrality or independence. This period of political ambivalence sees no clear consensus emerge, setting the stage for future instability.

Al Saud Struggles and the Rise of Al Rashid

Internal dissension continues to weaken the Al Saud control over central Arabia. The rival Al Rashid family from Jabal Shammar capitalizes on this instability, displacing the Al Saud from Riyadh in 1891. Abd ar Rahman ibn Faisal, the last effective leader of the second Saudi state, flees with his family, including his son Abdul Aziz ibn Saud, to Kuwait. This marks a significant setback for the Al Saud, creating conditions that eventually enable their later resurgence and the formation of modern Saudi Arabia.

Persian Concessions and Nationalist Frustration

Under Naser ad-Din Shah, Persia experiences increasing frustration due to extensive foreign concessions. In 1888, the shah opens the Karun River in Khuzestan Province to foreign shipping and allows Baron von Reuter to establish Iran’s first bank, the Imperial Bank of Persia. In 1890, the shah grants a tobacco monopoly to British businessman G.F. Talbot, sparking the widespread Tobacco Protest (1891–1892). Clerics, merchants, and ordinary citizens unite against the concession, with a religious fatwa by cleric Mirza Hasan Shirazi leading to a successful boycott. The shah is forced to rescind the concession in 1892, significantly bolstering Iranian nationalism and the political influence of the clergy, though at considerable cost to an already depleted treasury.

British Influence and Maritime Stability in Oman

Under Faisal ibn Turki Al Sa'id, who succeeds peacefully as ruler, Oman continues to prosper under British protection, enjoying maritime stability and strengthened trade connections across the Indian Ocean. The separation between Muscat, Oman, and Zanzibar remains effective, with British naval power reinforcing regional security. Despite periodic tribal uprisings led by the Ibadi imamate, notably in 1895, the British effectively sustain the Al Bu Sa'id dynasty’s authority, preventing internal dissension from significantly disrupting commerce and governance.

Economic Prosperity in the Persian Gulf

Qatar and Abu Dhabi benefit economically from regional pearling and trade, sustained under stable rule by the Al Thani and Al Nahyan families. British maritime protection ensures continued prosperity and internal stability, allowing these emirates to consolidate their authority. Qatar remains culturally distinct due to its alignment with Wahhabism, setting it apart from neighboring emirates, while both states lay strong economic and political foundations for their eventual modern nationhood.

Iraq’s Integration into the Global Economy

Iraq continues its socioeconomic advancement, driven by ongoing infrastructure developments, including telegraph expansion, improved transportation networks, and trade facilitated by the Suez Canal. The implementation of the TAPU land laws strengthens tribal landlords, altering Iraq's socioeconomic landscape significantly. Secular education expands, fostering a burgeoning class of Western-educated Iraqis. Under the governorship of reform-minded leaders like Midhat Pasha, Iraq experiences enhanced urbanization and centralized administration, firmly integrating into global commerce.

Nationalist Awakening in the Caucasus

Nationalist sentiments among Armenians, Georgians, and Azerbaijanis intensify under Russian rule. Armenians, galvanized by the Hamidian Massacres, increasingly internationalize their cause, gaining global support. Armenian revolutionary parties, such as the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnak), send organizers to Turkey and advocate autonomy. In Azerbaijan, ethnic Russians dominate Baku's rapidly growing oil industry, dramatically altering its demographic and economic character. Armenians also gain prominence in commerce and local administration. Baku becomes the largest city in the Caucasus by 1897, with significant Russian and Armenian populations. Georgian resistance to Russification intensifies as local nobility declines, and Armenian merchant influence grows, prompting Russia to assert direct control over Armenian religious and political institutions by the end of the century.

Legacy of the Era

From 1888 to 1899, transformative developments significantly reshape the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire's internal weaknesses and atrocities against Armenians draw international condemnation; Lebanese cultural and intellectual advances contrast sharply with political instability; the Al Saud suffer major setbacks; Persian nationalism emerges strongly in response to foreign concessions; Persian Gulf emirates enjoy sustained economic prosperity; Iraq integrates deeply into the global economy; and nationalist fervor escalates across the Caucasus. Collectively, these developments profoundly influence the region's subsequent political, cultural, and economic trajectories.