Prince Edward Island (British colony)
Years: 1798 - 1873
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St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) becomes a separate colony in 1769.
To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passes the Quebec Act of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.
It re-establishes the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there.
This angers many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, fueling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the 1775 outbreak of the American Revolution.
New Brunswick is split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes.
To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divides the province into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.
Peace comes in 1815; no boundaries are changed.
Further immigrants (mostly Irish) will arrive in the nineteenth century and will settle mostly in the nearby smaller locality of Anglo–Tignish (meaning "English Tignish").
Many of Tignish residents today are either of Acadian or Irish heritage.
Abraham Pineo Gesner develops a process to refine a liquid fuel, which he calls kerosene, from coal, bitumen or oil shale.
The process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well as other hydrocarbon compounds, was first written about in the ninth century by the Persian scholar Rāzi (or Rhazes).
In his Kitab al-Asrar (Book of Secrets), the physician and chemist Razi described two methods for the production of kerosene, termed naft abyad ("white naphtha"), using an apparatus called an alembic.
One method used clay as an absorbent, whereas the other method used ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac).
The distillation process was repeated until most of the volatile hydrocarbon fractions had been removed and the final product was perfectly clear and safe to burn.
Kerosene was also produced during the same period from oil shale and bitumen by heating the rock to extract the oil, which was then distilled.
During the medieval Chinese Ming Dynasty, the Chinese made use of kerosene through extracting and purifying petroleum and then converted it into lamp fuel.
The Chinese made use of petroleum for lighting lamps and heating homes as early as 1500 BCE.
Although "coal oil" was well known by industrial chemists at least as early as the 1700s as a byproduct of making coal gas and coal tar, it burned with a smoky flame that prevented its use for indoor illumination.
In cities, much indoor illumination is provided by piped-in coal gas, but outside the cities, and for spot lighting within the cities, the lucrative market for fueling indoor lamps is supplied by whale oil, specifically that from sperm whales, which burns brighter and cleaner.
Canadian geologist Abraham Gesner will claim that in 1846, he had given a public demonstration in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island of a new process he had discovered.
He heats coal in a retort, and distills from it a clear, thin fluid that he shows makes an excellent lamp fuel.
He coins the name "kerosene" for his fuel, a contraction of keroselaion, meaning wax-oil.
The cost of extracting kerosene from coal is high.
Northeastern North America
(1864 to 1875 CE): Conclusion of the Civil War, Reconstruction, Canadian Confederation, and Continued Industrial Expansion
From 1864 to 1875, Northeastern North America experienced the conclusion of the American Civil War, complex Reconstruction efforts, the formation of the Canadian Confederation, significant industrial and economic growth, and ongoing cultural development. This period was characterized by intense political restructuring, expanding infrastructure, evolving relationships with indigenous peoples, and the continued flourishing of regional industries.
American Civil War and Reconstruction
Conclusion and Aftermath
The American Civil War concluded in 1865, marking a profound turning point for Northeastern North America. The Northeast played a crucial role, contributing industrial resources, manpower, and economic support that proved vital for Union victory. Indigenous participation was significant; about twenty thousand Native Americans fought on both sides, including prominent contributions by the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Seminole, and Iroquois peoples. Notably, about forty-five Iowa tribesmen served in the Union Army, including Chief James White Cloud, grandson of Chief Mahaska. Irish and other immigrant communities also fought prominently, exemplifying the complex demographic dynamics of the war. The post-war Reconstruction era saw efforts to integrate formerly enslaved populations into society and rebuild a nation divided by war, facing resistance, social upheaval, and political struggle.
Formation of the Canadian Confederation
Constitutional Conferences and Confederation
Following several constitutional conferences, the Constitution Act officially proclaimed the Canadian Confederationon July 1, 1867, initially uniting four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. This marked a significant political realignment aimed at ensuring stability, economic prosperity, and defense against potential American expansionism.
Expansion and Indigenous Relations
In 1870, Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory, forming the Northwest Territories. Tensions surrounding land rights and governance ignited the Red River Rebellion, led by the Métis under Louis Riel, resulting in the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. Further territorial expansion occurred as British Columbia, including Vancouver Island (united in 1866), joined the Confederation in 1871, and Prince Edward Island followed in 1873.
Industrial and Economic Growth
Bluestone and Infrastructure Development
The bluestone industry continued to thrive, playing a critical role in urban development. Cities like New York and Kingston relied on shipments from hubs like Rondout and Malden, utilizing barges and tugboats operated by entrepreneurs such as Thomas Cornell. Bluestone became a staple material for sidewalks, curbstones, and building foundations, defining the architectural character of urban environments.
Notable examples included Kingston’s sidewalks and curbstones and the Old Dutch Church in Kingston, designed by Minard Lefever, constructed of native-dressed bluestone blocks between 1850 and 1852. Similarly, in 1858, entrepreneur Henry Samson built an Italian villa using ashlar and rusticated bluestone blocks on West Chestnut Street in Kingston.
Ice Harvesting and Brick Manufacturing
Ice harvesting along the Hudson River remained essential for refrigeration and food preservation, supported by large warehouses and extensive straw insulation methods. Brick manufacturing near major waterways and transportation hubs further reinforced the economic vitality and industrial capability of the region.
Artistic and Cultural Continuity
Hudson River School Influence
The Hudson River School, though past its zenith, continued influencing American art and culture. Paintings from artists such as Frederick Edwin Church and Sanford Robinson Gifford persisted in capturing landscapes that symbolized America's natural beauty and national identity, reflecting ongoing themes of exploration, settlement, and harmony with nature.
Legacy of the Era (1864–1875 CE)
Between 1864 and 1875, Northeastern North America navigated the challenging aftermath of the Civil War, fostered the political and territorial growth of Canada, and sustained industrial and cultural advancement. The transformations of this era, from Reconstruction to Confederation and industrial prosperity, continued to shape the region’s historical trajectory, significantly influencing the subsequent decades.
British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) join the confederation in 1871, while Prince Edward Island joins in 1873.
The Charlottetown Conference, held in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island for representatives from the colonies of British North America to discuss Canadian Confederation, takes place between September 1 and 9, 1864.
The conference was originally planned as a meeting between representatives from the Maritime colonies only: Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island.
Newfoundland agreed with the movement, but had not been notified in time to take part in the proceedings.
Britain has encouraged a Maritime Union between these colonies, hoping that they will then become less economically and politically dependent on the Crown, as well as provide for greater economic and military power for the region in light of the ongoing American Civil War.
However another colony, the Province of Canada (modern Ontario and Quebec), had heard news of the planned conference and had asked that the agenda be expanded to discuss a union that would also include them.
Newfoundland had also requested to be able to attend the conference in August 1864, but by then it was too late to change the plans.
Coincidentally, there is a circus in Charlottetown at the same time, which is much more interesting to the majority of the population.
There is no one working at the public wharf at the foot of Great George Street when the Canadian delegates arrives on the steamship SS Victoria, so Prince Edward Island representative William Henry Pope has to handle receptions by himself, including rowing out to greet the new arrivals.
The Canadian delegates stay each night on board the SS Queen Victoria as the circus and the Maritime delegates have taken up most of the accommodations in town.
Most of the Maritimes are convinced that a wider union including the Province of Canada would also be beneficial to them; Prince Edward Island is unsure, however, and very much against confederation.
They also believe that this union could be achieved within a few years, rather than in an undefined period in the future as they had originally planned.
The conference had concluded on Wednesday, September 7, but the representatives agreed to meet again the next month in Quebec City.
A ball is also held on September 8, after which the delegates return home.
The Quebec Conference is the second meeting held in 1864 to discuss Canadian Confederation, held at the Old Parliament Building in Quebec in October.
Newfoundland also sends two observers, but does not participate directly in the proceedings.
British Columbia does not participate in the conference.
The major source of conflict at the conference, which begins on October 10, was between those who favors a strong central government, such as John A. Macdonald, and those who favor stronger provincial rights.
Representatives from the Maritimes and Canada East (now Quebec) tend to argue for provincial rights, fearing they will lose their cultural identity under a centralized government.
Macdonald thinks the failure of smaller, localized governments is evident in the American Civil War, which is being fought in the United States as the delegates meet in Charlottetown and Quebec.
The delegates eventually compromise, dividing powers between federal and provincial governments.
They also decide to have an elected lower house, the House of Commons, and an appointed upper house, the Senate, although there is considerable debate about how many senators each province would have.
Eventually, a proposed structure for the government is written out in the form of the seventy-two resolutions at the end of the conference on October 27, and the delegates return to their provinces to submit the Seventy-Two Resolutions to the provincial legislatures
The British colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island had discussed the possibility of a fusion to counter the threat of American annexation and to reduce the costs of governance.
The Province of Canada had entered these negotiations at the behest of the British government; this had led to the ambivalence of Prince Edward Island, which will delay joining the new Dominion of Canada for seven years, even though the constitutional conference had been held here, in Charlottetown.