The wider Scandinavian region is the source of Vikings from the eighth to the tenth century.

The looting of the monastery at Lindisfarne in Northeast England in 793 by Norse people has long been regarded as the event that marked the beginning of the Viking Age.

This age is characterized by expansion and emigration by Viking seafarers.

They colonize, raid, and trade in all parts of Europe.

Norwegian Viking explorers first discover Iceland by accident in the ninth century when heading for the Faroe Islands, and eventually come across Vinland, known today as Newfoundland, in Canada.

The Vikings from Norway are most active in the northern and western British Isles and eastern North America isles.

According to tradition, Harald Fairhair unified them into one in 872 after the Battle of Hafrsfjord in Stavanger, thus becoming the first king of a united Norway.

Harald's realm is mainly a South Norwegian coastal state.

Fairhair rules with a strong hand and according to the sagas, many Norwegians left the country to live in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and parts of Britain and Ireland.

The modern-day Irish cities of Dublin, Limerick and Waterford are founded by Norwegian settlers.

The settlement of Iceland is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the ninth century, when Norse settlers migrated across the North Atlantic.

The reasons for the migration may be traced to a shortage of arable land in Scandinavia, and civil strife brought about by the ambitions of the Norse king Harald the Fair-haired.

Unlike Britain and Ireland, Iceland is unsettled land, and can be claimed without warring on the inhabitants.

Historians typically refer to the year 874 as the first year of settlement.

Iceland may originally have been settled as early as the second half of the seventh century, as suggested by controversial results of recent carbon dating work, published in the journal Skírnir.

Celtic monks known as the Papar, possibly members of a Hiberno-Scottish mission, already live in Iceland when the Norse settlers arrive, according to both the Icelandic sagas Landnámabók and Íslendingabók. 

The medieval chronicler Ari Thorgilsson will state that Ingólfur Arnarson had been the first Nordic settler in Iceland, but mentioned that "Papar—i.e., Irish monks and hermits—had been in the country before the Norsemen.

He wrote that they left because they did not want to live among the newly arrived pagans.

Recent archaeological excavations have revealed the ruins of a cabin in Hafnir on the Reykjanes peninsula.

Carbon dating indicates that it was abandoned somewhere between 770 and 880, suggesting that Iceland was populated well before 874.

This archaeological find may also indicate that the monks left Iceland before the Norse arrived.

Swedish Viking explorer Garðar Svavarsson is the first to circumnavigate Iceland in 870 and establish that it is an island.

He stays over winter and builds a house in Húsavík.

Garðar departs the following summer but one of his men, Náttfari, decides to stay behind with two slaves.

Náttfari settles in what is now known as Náttfaravík and becomes the first permanent resident of Iceland.

Ingólfur Arnarson in the year 874 builds his homestead in present-day Reykjavík.

Ingólfr is followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Norsemen and their thralls, many of whom are Irish or Scoti.

Landnáma (written two to three centuries after the settlement) contains a long story about Ingólf's settlement.

The book claims he left Norway after becoming involved in a blood feud.

He had heard about a new island which Garðarr Svavarsson, Flóki Vilgerðarson and others had found in the Atlantic Ocean.

With his step brother Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson, he sailed for Iceland.

When land was in sight, he threw his high seat pillars (a sign of his being a chieftain) overboard and promised to settle where the gods decided to bring them ashore.

Two of his slaves then searched the coasts for three years before finding the pillars in the small bay that will eventually become Reykjavík.

In the meantime, Hjörleifr had been murdered by his Irish slaves because of his ill-treatment.

Ingólfr hunted them down and killed them in the Westman Islands (Vestmannaeyjar, named after the slaves).

Ingólfr was said to settle a large part of the southwestern part of Iceland, but after his settlement nothing more was known.

His son, Bjorsteinn Ingólfsson, is a major chieftain and is said to have founded the first thing, or parliament, in Iceland.

It is a forerunner of the Althingi.

The name Ingolf, similar to the name Adolf that means "aristocratic wolf", would be translated as "royal or kingly wolf."

Landnámabók lists four hundred and thirty-five men as the initial settlers, the majority of them settling in the northern and southwestern parts of the island.

Tønsberg had been founded, according to Snorri Sturluson, before the Battle of Hafrsfjord, which, according to Snorri, took place in 871.

What year the battle took place is disputed, however, and most current historians believe the battle took place closer to 900.

If, however, the battle did in fact take place in 871, this would make Tønsberg the oldest present Scandinavian city.

Northwest Europe (880–891 CE): Viking Consolidation and Expansion under Harald Fairhair

Viking Rule and the Danelaw

Between 880 and 891 CE, Norse control across Northwest Europe solidified further, especially in England. Following the establishment of the Danelaw under the Treaty of Wedmore (878 CE), Viking settlers secured extensive territories in northern and eastern England, including major areas of Mercia, East Anglia, and Northumbria. In Ireland, thriving Viking-founded towns such as Dublin, Waterford, and Limerick served as centers of trade and military power, shaping significant Norse-Gaelic cultural interactions.

Harald Fairhair and the Unification of Norway

This era marked a turning point in Norwegian history with the rise of the legendary Viking ruler Harald Fairhair (Harald Hårfagre), son of Halfdan the Black, who sought dominance over the fragmented Norwegian territories. Through strategic alliances, political maneuvering, and decisive military actions, Harald gradually expanded his influence, aiming to become the first king to unify Norway.

The pivotal moment was the Battle of Hafrsfjord, traditionally dated to the 880s CE. Located near present-day Stavanger, this major naval engagement pitted Harald’s forces against a coalition of chieftains primarily from southwestern Norway—especially Rogaland and regions around the Sognefjord. The scale and significance of this battle ensured its lasting resonance in Norse memory, symbolizing the emergence of a centralized Norwegian monarchy, even if modern historians regard unification as an extended process rather than a single decisive event.

Impact of the Battle of Hafrsfjord

Harald's victory at Hafrsfjord fundamentally reshaped the power structure of Norway, allowing him to consolidate rule, establish centralized authority, and institute systematic taxation across significant regions. Although historical and archaeological research indicates the battle was part of a longer process, its symbolic status endured as the origin story of a unified Norwegian state.

Following the battle, many defeated chieftains and their followers opted for exile rather than submission, fueling significant waves of emigration. Their migration routes passed through established Norse colonies in the Orkney and Shetland Islands, where many warriors integrated into local Norse communities, often taking island women as companions. From there, many proceeded onward to Iceland, significantly accelerating settlement there and reinforcing Iceland's role as a refuge from Scandinavian political turmoil.

Iceland: Rapid Settlement and Expansion

The settlement of Iceland, beginning officially in 874 CE with Ingólfur Arnarson near modern Reykjavík, saw significant growth during this era. Emigrants fleeing Norway’s centralization under Harald Fairhair rapidly populated Iceland’s previously uninhabited lands, establishing new communities free from direct royal oversight.

Texts like Landnámabók document approximately 435 initial settlers, many arriving between 880 and 891 CE, predominantly settling in northern and southwestern Iceland. This migration period significantly shaped Iceland’s social, political, and cultural landscape, laying the foundations for an independent Norse society distinct from mainland Scandinavia.

Alfred the Great’s Anglo-Saxon Resistance

Meanwhile, in southern England, King Alfred the Great continued strengthening Wessex against persistent Viking threats. Alfred fortified towns (burhs), improved military organization, and expanded naval defenses. His efforts maintained Wessex’s sovereignty, curbing Viking expansion southward and setting the groundwork for the eventual reconquest and unification of Anglo-Saxon England.

Cultural Exchange and Preservation

The intensification of Viking influence across Northwest Europe further accelerated cultural exchange. Norse, Anglo-Saxon, Gaelic, and Brittonic populations interacted extensively, reshaping linguistic, cultural, and religious traditions. Indigenous narratives like the legends surrounding King Arthur continued to resonate, representing cultural continuity amid widespread change.

Monastic communities, despite continuing threats, preserved knowledge and religious life, safeguarding important cultural and historical manuscripts.

Legacy of the Era

By 891 CE, Viking expansion, Harald Fairhair’s unification efforts, and extensive settlement migrations had profoundly transformed Northwest Europe. The events of this era—especially the pivotal Battle of Hafrsfjord and its aftermath—reshaped Norway’s political landscape, significantly accelerated Iceland’s colonization, and defined the evolving relationship between Norse settlers and indigenous populations across Britain, Ireland, and the North Atlantic islands. These dynamics firmly established political, cultural, and social foundations that would influence the region for centuries.

Scandinavian warrior chief Harald Fairhair, the son of Halfdan the Black, ruler of southeastern Norway, wins control of most of Norway by alliances and conquests, culminating in his victory at Hafrsfjord near Stavanger.

It was formerly believed that this battle was the decisive event in the unification of Norway.

Although most scholars currently tend to regard the unification as a process lasting centuries, rather than being the result of a single battle, the Battle of Hafrsfjord ranks high in the popular imagination of Norway.

It is the conclusion of King Harald I of Norway's declaration to become the sole ruler of Norway.

This battle may well have been the largest in Norway up to that time and for a good while after.

According to Snorri's saga, King Harald controlled large parts of Norway's southeast portion before the battle; but other sources claim that the eastern portion of Norway was under the Danish king.

The Battle of Hafrsfjord marks the final crushing of opposition from Norway's southwestern portion (primarily Rogaland, but also chieftains from the Sognefjord area).

This makes it possible for King Harald to subdue the country and collect taxes from a large part of it.

Later historiography regards him as the first legitimate King of Norway.

The Icelandic historian Ólafia Einarsdóttir in the 1970s will concluded that the battle took place some time between 870 and 875.

However still disputed, most scholars will agree that the battle took place during the 880s.

In any case, many of the losers emigrate to Iceland, stopping en route in the Orkney and Shetland Islands to take on island women as partners, willing or unwilling, in the new life they intend for themselves.

Both Shetland and …

…Orkney have seen a significant influx of Norwegian settlers during the late eighth and early ninth centuries.

Vikings have made the islands the headquarters of their pirate expeditions carried out against Norway and the coasts of mainland Scotland.

In response, Norwegian king Harald Hårfagre ("Harald Fair Hair") in 875 annexes the Northern Isles (comprising Orkney and Shetland).

Rognvald Eysteinsson receives Orkney and Shetland from Harald as an earldom as reparation for the death of his son in battle in Scotland, and then passed the earldom on to his brother Sigurd the Mighty.

Vikings of the 800s and 900s bury their important leaders in fully rigged ships beneath burial mounds, accompanied by a wealth of domestic utensils and funerary offerings.

The so-called Gokstad ship burial in southern Norway, dating to about 900, exemplifies Norse seagoing longships of the age.

Measuring more than seventy-five feet (twenty-three meters) long and seventeen feet (five and a quarter meters) wide, and built of oak and pine, with a heavy wooden keel and high prow and stern, its overlapping planks are nailed together and lashed to nineteen ribs and cross members.

Sixteen oar holes pierce each side of the hull; a corresponding thirty-two shields are mounted one over the next along the gunwales.

A single mast carries a huge square sail whose yard measures thirty-six feet (eleven meters) across.

An oar fixed at the aft end on the starboard side steers the ship.

Northwest Europe (892–903 CE): Alfred's Defense, Norse Migration, and the Strengthening of Kingdoms

Renewed Viking Attacks and Alfred’s Defense

The period from 892 to 903 CE witnessed renewed and aggressive Viking incursions into Anglo-Saxon England. Following several years of relative calm under King Alfred the Great of Wessex, a formidable Viking force, led by the warrior chiefs Hæsten and others, arrived in Kent in 892 CE, signaling a fresh phase of hostilities. These raiders, who had recently departed the continent after failed campaigns in Francia, aimed to plunder and settle in fertile English territories.

King Alfred quickly mobilized his defenses, capitalizing on previous strategic reforms. His established network of fortified towns, known as burhs, proved essential in resisting Viking incursions. Over the next several years, numerous skirmishes and sieges occurred across southern England, notably in Kent, Sussex, and Essex. Through skillful military strategy and improved naval forces, Alfred effectively contained the Viking threat, notably forcing the Vikings to abandon fortifications at Benfleet and Shoebury.

By 896 CE, persistent defeats and hardships caused many Vikings to disperse. Some joined pre-existing Norse communities in the Danelaw, while others retreated to mainland Europe, marking a significant triumph for Alfred’s resilient defenses.

Consolidation of the Danelaw

Meanwhile, in the regions under Danish control—known collectively as the Danelaw—Norse settlers consolidated their rule. Cultural and economic integration deepened between Norse and Anglo-Saxon communities, fostering a hybrid society marked by distinct legal traditions, linguistic influences, and robust trade networks. York (Jorvik), as the capital of the Viking kingdom of Northumbria, emerged as a vibrant urban center under Norse rule.

Irish and Scottish Dynamics

In Ireland, Viking settlements such as Dublin and Limerick remained influential trading centers. Increasingly, Norse-Irish interaction led to the growth of a uniquely blended culture. However, local Gaelic kingdoms frequently challenged Viking rule, resulting in intermittent conflicts and shifting alliances.

In Scotland, the kingdom of Alba, formed by the unification of the Scots and Picts under the descendants of Kenneth MacAlpin, continued to solidify its position, gradually resisting further Norse encroachment. Nonetheless, Norse territories persisted in Scotland's northern and western archipelagos, including the Orkneys, Shetland, and the Hebrides.

Harald Fairhair and Norwegian Expansion

The era following Harald Fairhair’s decisive victory at Hafrsfjord (circa late 880s) saw continued repercussions in Northwest Europe. Many defeated Norwegian chieftains and their followers emigrated, passing through Orkney and Shetland before settling in newly colonized Iceland. Harald, now recognized widely as the first legitimate King of Norway, consolidated his authority at home, facilitating Norway’s emergence as a unified monarchy.

Flourishing Settlement of Iceland

In Iceland, settlement accelerated significantly during this period, driven largely by refugees from Norway's internal conflicts and Harald’s expanding royal authority. By the early 890s, Icelandic communities had firmly established themselves, growing rapidly and beginning to develop local political structures. Ingólfur Arnarson’s pioneering settlement at Reykjavík expanded into thriving regional communities, as outlined in later Icelandic sources like Landnámabók.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Monastic institutions continued preserving learning, scholarship, and spiritual life across Britain and Ireland, despite ongoing pressures from Norse raids. They safeguarded cultural legacies, including traditions linked to legendary figures such as King Arthur, thus maintaining continuity amid the profound changes of the Viking Age.

Legacy of the Era

By 903 CE, Northwest Europe was undergoing significant transformation. Alfred’s successful defense against Viking incursions marked a turning point for Anglo-Saxon England, strengthening Wessex as the nucleus of future English unity. At the same time, Norse communities firmly entrenched in the Danelaw, Ireland, Scotland, and Iceland significantly reshaped the region's cultural and political landscape, setting the stage for developments in the following centuries.